Minor league football (gridiron)

There have been professional Football leagues of varying levels since the invention of the sport, and over time the leagues in North America settled into an unofficial hierarchy. There is a major league designation to the National Football League (American football), the Canadian Football League (Canadian football), but contrary to the other major sports in the US (MLB, MLS, NBA and NHL) no formal development farm system is in use,[1] after the NFL severed ties with all minor league teams in 1948,[2][3] and again with the cancellation of NFL Europe in 2006.[4]

Over the years there was an attempt to organize a development or farm leagues such as the Association of Professional Football Leagues,[5][6][7] and the after-mentioned WLAF/NFL Europe/NFL Europa, but failed to produce profits and cancelled unceremoniously.[8] In the vacuum a lot of ambitious entrepreneurs have been trying to establish rival or alternative/ supplement leagues to the NFL, but beside the AAFC and the AFL that merge with the NFL, none of the other league succeed,[9] particularly because the leagues lack of ability to generate television revenue to keep the league afloat in its first years of existence.[10][11]

In modern times, the NFL has developed players not ready for the active roster through each team's practice squad, or relied on college football[12][13][14][15] and separate entities like the now-defunct Arena Football League[16][17][18] as their feeder organizations. In the last decade, three fledgling pro football leagues - UFL,[19] FXFL[20][21] and AAF[22][23] - had hoped to create a relationship with the NFL as some sort of a developmental minor league, but were never able to really gain traction before folding.

History

Early circuits (1890–1919)

While the practice of professional and semi-pro teams playing college and amateur teams was common in the 1890s, in the 20th century, college and professional football began to diverge and college-professional interplay effectively ended after the NCAA formed in 1906. During this time, the most prominent circuit was the Western Pennsylvania Professional Football Circuit, and most winning teams claimed national "professional" football title.[24]

The first attempt to form a pro league was the National Football League of 1902, but despite the name was actually regional league that was only composed of teams from Pennsylvania (two of the teams were based in Philadelphia, while the third was based in Pittsburgh). The next step came when promoter Tom O'Rourke established the World Series of Football (1902–03). The series (and not a "league") played indoors at New York City's Madison Square Garden and consisted of five teams, three from the state of New York, one from New Jersey, and another team called "New York", but comprising two Philadelphia teams - the Athletics and the Phillies.[25] The 1903 series also featured the Franklin Athletic Club from Pennsylvania.

At the same time, teams from Ohio – namely the Massillon Tigers, the Columbus Panhandles and the Canton Bulldogs – start attracting much of the top professional football talent in America: Harry McChesney, Bob Shiring, the Nesser brothers, Blondy Wallace, Cub Buck and later even Jim Thorpe, and gave rise to the Ohio League. The "league" was actually a circuit – informal and loose association of independent teams playing other local teams and competed for the "Ohio Independent Championship". The group pioneered the concept of playing games on Sundays to avoid competition with college football games, as it was illegal in other states (due to the existing blue laws), which eventually became the professional standard.

The Ohio League decade-long monopoly began to lose hold in the 1910s, with the formation of the New York Pro Football League (NYPFL) (the first league to use a playoff format) and other associations in the Midwest (particularly in Illinois). The rise in level of play resulted in barnstorming tours between the circuits, which laid the foundations for the first truly national league – The American Professional Football Association in 1920.

The Golden Era

The first minor leagues period of prosperity or "the heyday"[5] started in the 1920s and lasted until the end of World War II. By the '30s, Football was not a fledgling enterprise, but was certainty one when we talk about Pro-Football, as even the National Football League had trouble attracting fans, and was located mostly in the northeastern quarter of the United States. In the vacuum, several regional leagues tried their luck in the pro game, along with flourishing regional circuits of independent teams, recapturing the pro football roots. The era is also considered the best of all time, because the quality of play, as there was only 250 players in the NFL, while the regional leagues could sometimes offer better pay and jobs, and offered black players opportunity to play during the period when they were excluded from all NFL teams (1933–1946).[26][27]

In 1934 the American Football League was the first true attempt to establish pro football in the American South and Southwest regions. The league was formed by the strongest independent teams in the region, including the Memphis Tigers, who claimed the "national pro championship" in 1929, after beating the NFL champions the Green Bay Packers. The AFL had only one season of competition and folded after only the Memphis Tigers and the Charlotte Bantams completing their respected seasons.[28]

Another strong "South" league was the Dixie League, that represented Mid Atlantic teams. The league was one of the most successful minor leagues in history, playing eight seasons in 11 years, while claiming they're the "highest level minor football league" in the era. Unlike most pro-football minor leagues, the Dixie League had a relative stability in membership until the Pearl Harbor attack forced the league into hiatus. The league returned in 1946, but wasn't the same, and folded altogether in 1947, after playing only one week.[29]

The Dixie League's biggest rival was the American Association football league. The AA was formed by the nucleus of independent teams that played in the New York–New Jersey circuits, and was led by the president Joe Rosentover. The league teams sought relationships with the NFL, and several teams functioned as a farm system for the major NFL teams, like the Newark Bears, Brooklyn Eagles and the Jersey City Giants. The league allowed black players to participate, including the last African-American in the NFL Joe Lillard (Clifton Wessingtons) and most teams scheduled games against the independent Fritz Pollard's Harlem Brown Bombers. The league closed operations during World War II, and after a four-year hiatus, the AA was renamed the American Football League and expanded to include teams in Ohio and Pennsylvania. The league demise is attribute to the fact the NFL severed ties with all minor league teams in 1948.[30]

The last of the "Big Three Leagues"[31] was the Pacific Coast Professional Football League which started in 1940. The roots of pro-football in the west are attribute to the Red Grange barnstorming tour with the Chicago Bears in 1926, as some leagues were formed – Pacific Coast League (1926) and American Legion League (1934–1935) – but did not lasted long. The PCPFL was formed behind the financial backbone of the sport in California – the Los Angeles Bulldogs – the "best football team in existence outside the NFL",[32][33] and were the only prominent minor football league that operate during the war years. The league became home to the top African American football talents in the country, including Kenny Washington, Woody Strode, Ozzie Simmons, Mel Reid and briefly even Jackie Robinson during the NFL enforced color barrier. The league played its last season in 1948, two years after the NFL moved the Rams to Los Angeles.[34][35]

The "Big Three" reached an agreement with the NFL, and in 1946 formed the Association of Professional Football Leagues for a formal farm system with the league. The agreement lasted less than two years, after the NFL cancelled it altogether in 1948.[2] The termination triggered the end of the era.

Other prominent leagues were the Anthracite League (Pennsylvania), Eastern League of Professional Football (Pennsylvania and New Jersey), Ohio Valley League, Midwest Football League and the Northwest War Industries League (Washington and Oregon). During the '30s and '40s there was also a strong independent circuits in Greater New York metropolitan area and in the Northeast.[36]

The second wave

The minor leagues experienced renaissance in the 60's and 70's, as their growing relevance occurred concurrently with the AFL and NFL rivalry.[10] Several prominent leagues operated during that period and were mostly regional: The original United Football League (UFL I) lasted from 1961 to 1964 and was concentrated in the Midwest, although we remember it as the first football league to operate teams in both the United States and Canada, as the Quebec Rifles played in the league in 1964.

In 1962 it was quickly joined by the Atlantic Coast Football League (ACFL) from the Northeast, which was run by Joe Rosentover as the previous American Association (AA) of the 1930s. When the UFL folded, and the Newark Bears of the ACFL unsuccessfully applied to join the AFL, two new national leagues formed. The first was the North American Football League (NAFL),[10] which ran from 1965 to 1966, and tried to establish Major league affiliations with either the NFL or the AFL. The second – the Continental Football League (CoFL), which ran from 1965 to 1971 – was probably the biggest in the era, and attracted the ACFL three best teams: Hartford Charter Oaks, Newark Bears and Springfield Acorns (as the Norfolk Neptunes).

The other leagues were the Professional Football League of America (PFLA) which lasted three years (1965–1967) and played in the Midwest (essentially substituted the UFL), and the Texas Football League (TFL), which operated in the southern United States. However, both leagues would later merge with the CoFL, as several teams from the PFLA joined the league in 1968 (resulting in dissolution of the PFLA),[37] and in 1969 the CoFL announced that the entirety of the eight-team TFL was added to its ranks as a separate division, and were mostly scheduled to play against each other with few inter-league contests.[38]

The two bigger leagues, the CoFL and ACFL had different strategies: the CoFL had "independent" aspirations, while the ACFL was happy as a developmental league and (like previous leagues run by Rosentover) allowed its teams to become farm teams to the AFL and NFL teams.[10]

Over their existence, the CoFL arguably had better talent, that went on to NFL and CFL stardom (Ken Stabler, Don Jonas, and Sam Wyche), but folded after 1971 (as a incarnation called the Trans-American Football League), and plans to take on the Canadian Football League head-to-head were abandoned. Although the revival as the TAFL was largely a failure, the league foreshadowed the future of minor football from now on, as it played its season at the spring to avoid direct competition against other football in the fall.[39]

The ACFL also produced some significant talent (e.g. Pro Bowler Marvin Hubbard, the first female professional football player, placeholder Patricia Palinkas and cult figure King Corcoran) and even lasted longer. The league operated continuously through 1971, with a return season in 1973, which played mostly by promoted teams from the lower-level Seaboard Football League (which in turn, brought up a semi-pro teams to supplement them).[40] However, the attempted major World Football League (WFL) sapped both leagues from most of their talent, and forced them to fold by 1974.

During it existence, The Seaboard Football League hovered between a minor league and semi-pro, as some of its players never got paid (most notable was Joe Klecko[41]) and other got only $50 per game. Despite that, the league had some notable alumni including: Vince Papale, Jack Dolbin and Klecko. Additionally, the league's claim to fame is that it is the last minor league to play an inter-league exhibition match against an NFL team, when the New York Jets rookies defeated Long Island Chiefs 29–3.[40]

The last minor league attempt in the '70s – the American Football Association (AFA), that operated from 1978 to 1983 – was less successful, especially because it struggled to acquire recognizable players and consequentially failed to secure a TV deal.[42] The AFA followed the model set by the TAFL, and played "off-season" schedule during the summer (May to August).[43] The formation of the USFL led to a decline in AFA talent, move to a semi-pro status, and a cancellation of the league entirely after the 1983 season.

The development of arena football and the birth of the Arena Football League in 1987 has effectively ended the era, and reduced most outdoor leagues to amateur or semi-pro status.

NFL Europe

After the turmoil in the '80s, the NFL decided to form its own league in 1991 – the World League of American Football – a spring developmental league. For the first time, an American sport league had a European division as part of its 10 team league,[44] while the other teams were located in continental US and Canada. The league was used to test rule changes and technical innovations[45] and supposed to use as a "farm system" for the NFL teams. However, the first two seasons produced low TV ratings,[46] and was put on hiatus until 1995. When it came back, the league was based entirely in Europe, was reduced to six teams and re-branded as NFL Europe.

From then until 2007, the league kept the same format, when the NFL decided to cancel it altogether.[47] Ultimately, the was the longest tenured minor league in history, having lasted for 15 cumulative years, and producing players like the hall of famer Kurt Warner and Superbowl quarterbacks Brad Johnson and Jake Delhomme.[48] Other notable players include: Dante Hall, David Akers, James Harrison, Adam Vinatieri and William Perry.

Modern era

In the late '90s and early 2000s began a wave of new "outside" entrepreneurs that wanted to dip their toes in the evergrowing football market, corresponding with the dot-com boom.

The first league was the Regional Football League that played one season in 1999, and had aspirations to be considered a high-level minor league, as they self-styled themselves as the "Major league of spring football". The league was proposed to begin in 1998, but financial difficulties delayed it by a year, and change the business plans, as it was now a lower-budget league and featured only six teams from mid-size cities that was mostly located at the Southern United States. The league did not prosper, as it failed to secure a television contract, and beside the Mobile, Alabama team, failed miserably at the gate, was forced to play eight-week shortened season and folded altogether at the end. Although in the end the league was unsuccessful, it suggested an interesting wrinkle that future leagues will use, as the players were assigned to teams base of the region where they played in college (hence the league name).

Parallel to the RFL, there were two more separate attempts to start up new leagues. The first, the International Football Federation flopped so miserably it is remembered as the shortest existing league ("one press conference"). The second, the Spring Football League, was founded by several ex-NFL players (Bo Jackson, Drew Pearson, Eric Dickerson and Tony Dorsett) but failed to attract big investors because of the tech-market crash of 2000, and was cancelled after only two weeks.

The next attempt was probably the biggest since the emergence of the AFL in 1960, as NBC and the WWE collaborate to form the (original) XFL in 2001. Although 14 million viewers who tuned in for the first game, the Nielsen ratings was later plummeted because of mediocre football, and triggered NBC to pulled out of its broadcast contract, and the league folded after one season. The league featured several changes in rules and broadcast, and remembered as the one the gave birth to the "Skycam" in sport broadcasting.

From that point on the startup leagues had trouble to attract investors, as there was no proof of concept to a feasible minor league football. During the era five high profile attempts – All American Football League and United National Gridiron League in 2007, New United States Football League with two separate attempts in 2010 and 2014, and the A-11 Football League (2014) – never materialize and made it even harder for other future leagues.

The new modern day United Football League was the most prominent league in the era, playing 3½ seasons before folding. The UFL was fairly successful, attracting big crowds in Omaha, Sacramento and Hartford and had plans of expending, while all league games aired on Versus and HDnet (every game was also webcast), and functioned as a single entity league following the Major League Soccer model. The UFL featured former NFL players and was the first professional fall league other than the National Football League to play in the United States since the mid-1970s. Alas, the league collapsed mid-2012 season, failing to pay the bills after most investors stepped out. The league will be remembered in football lore as the one giving Marty Schottenheimer his only championship as a coach.[49]

The Fall Experimental Football League (FXFL) was the first league that openly embraced the minor league concept, and wanted to become a professional feeder-system for the NFL. The league owner, Brian Woods, wanted his franchises to be primarily based in minor league baseball stadiums, and use the infra-structure in place to attract fans. The FXFL attracted the final NFL roster cuts, for the purpose of keeping them "in football shape, physically and mentally".[50] The league was cancelled after two abbreviated seasons, and was reformatted as the developmental "The Spring League".

Other leagues in the era were the low-level New World Football League (2008–2010) and the Stars Football League (2011–2013), as they both survived three season but folded unceremoniously.

In 2018, several strong figures, with connections to the original XFL, entered to the spring-football market with rival leagues. The first was the Alliance of American Football (AAF) that was founded by Charlie Ebersol and Bill Polian, and began playing in 2019, but ceased operations eight weeks in, as the controlling owner Thomas Dundon decided to pull the plug. The second was the relaunched version of the XFL, as Vince McMahon hired Oliver Luck as commissioner. The league first began play in 2020, with higher success and reception and had aired on ABC/ESPN and Fox Sports. After 5 weeks of play, the XFL announced that its season would end, because of growing COVID-19 pandemic concerns. The league is currently on hiatus, after it filed for bankruptcy and put up for sale by McMahon and was later sold to Dany Garcia, Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson and RedBird Capital.[51]

"The league may be dead due to the extraordinary circumstances of our time, but it died after proving that a secondary football league can absolutely work in the United States."

Nick Schwartz, The XFL is gone but not forgotten, USA Today, April 14, 2020.[52]

Since 1998, there have been more than 20 football leagues (traditional or Indoor) who played an average of 3½ years before folding or merging with others, some never opened.[53] There are three active minor leagues in the US. Two low-level leagues: the Gridiron Developmental Football League and the Rivals Professional Football League, and one developmental league - The Spring League. Two more leagues are in hiatus: the high-level XFL and the developmental Your Call Football.

System and structure

There have been professional football leagues of varying levels since the invention of the sport, trying their turn in the sport's ever-growing market. Over time there was attempts to start a rival major leagues, as the last one was the USFL, but most leagues that followed were high-level minor leagues such as the XFL, the UFL and the AAF. Whether it was "Major" or "Minor", most football leagues were looking to establish teams in untapped potential U.S. big markets.[54]

Most of the minor leagues were separated through the years to three de-facto categories:[55] high-level (for example: PCPFL[56] or the XFL[57] and the AAF[58][59][60][61]), low-level (American Football Association or Spring Football League) and semi-professional leagues. Today there are two more levels: mid-level (FXFL[62][63][64] or the future APL[65]) and developmental leagues[66] (The Spring League,[67][68] Your Call Football[69] and the future Pac Pro[70]).

The categories are usually determined by the following rules: the high-level leagues salary is above median US wage, the mid-level pays around the median wage and the low-level pays around or below the US minimum wage. The developmental leagues don't pay salaries or construct with a non-NFL eligible players, and designed to showcase the players' skills for future opportunities.

Indoor/arena football

The Indoor variation of football also has an unofficial minor-leagues hierarchy, although no league holds a "Major" designation, after the AFL folded.[17][71][72] The categories are more fluid, but usually determined by salaries and arena size:

Semi-pro football

The semi-pro leagues hold a strong place in American football history, but were far more common in the early and mid-20th century than they are today. Football is especially suited for semi-pro play, and most leagues often operate at a semi-professional level due to cost concerns. Contrary to other sports, team rosters are huge – 36+ players on a team, and as many as 14 coaches – so, with the salary and the logistics of getting the team to the games, there is a lot of overhead. Furthermore, because they play only one game per week, the players are able to pursue outside employment.

Over the years, semi-pro leagues attracted college players on the fringe of playing in the NFL who needed to stay in shape, and were effectively a farm system for the NFL.[77][78][79][80][81][82] The most notable players are Johnny Unitas who played quarterback, safety and punter on a team called the Bloomfield Rams for $6 a game before joining the Baltimore Colts,[83] and Eric Swann who was the first (and so far the only) player to be drafted in the NFL draft first round from a semi pro organization (Bay State Titans). Another player is Ray Seals, who did not play college football but made his way to the NFL through the semi-pro rank (Syracuse Express).

The semi-pro leagues role in history is best portrayed in the 1987 24-day NFLPA Strike, when semi-pro players were called as a replacements,[84][85] after the third week of the NFL season was cancelled. Their stories are documented in the 2017 ESPN film Year of the Scab.[86] The semi-pro demise in football lore is attributed to the flourishing of college football in the '80s,[13] and the subsequently rise in the never-ending talent pool for the NFL to draw from.

The Watertown Red & Black, a semi-professional team that currently plays in the Empire Football League, is the oldest existing football club, tracing its history to 1896.[87]

Minor League Football System

After the decline of the minor leagues in the 1980s, the semi-pro circuit tried to fill that niche. In the summer of 1989 the Minor League Football System (MLFS) was formed, as an attempt to develop a nationwide semi-pro football league.[78][88][89] The circuit had aspiration to become a feeder system for the NFL[89] and featured 11 teams, in the same amount of states (CA, CO, FL, GA, MA, MO, NC, OK, PA, VA and WA). Because the "league" did not pay salaries but wanted to attract good local talent, it was established as a temp agency, and offered jobs for players in local communities as well as providing housing solutions during the season.[89][90] Despite that, they managed to attract decent talent, including ex-NFL players (Rusty Hilger and Ben Rudolph) and coaches (Walt Michaels, Darryl Rogers and Lou Saban).[91] After successful first season, the league attracted strong sponsors in Wilson and Gatorade,[92] but two teams folded midway through the second year, while the others stumbled to the finish line and folded altogether in the months that followed, as they were unable to establish a working agreement with the NFL. The league’s commissioner was Roger Wehrli.[88]

Modern circuit

Today, most leagues and independent teams are sanctioned by the American Football Association (unrelated to the former AFA), which acts as an organizer of games and playoff tournaments for teams throughout the US, and maintaining a Semi-Pro Football Hall of Fame.[93][94] Another organization is the USA Bowl Championship Series that ranks the top 25 semi-pro/amateur teams in the country, and attempts to crown the annual "National Champion" at the USA Bowl. The last association is the United States Federation of American Football, that tries to divide the existing leagues to AAA and AA class-levels.[95]

The prominent present-day leagues in the "Adult Amateur"/ "Semi-Pro" US circuit are: Amateur to Professional Developmental Football League,[66][96][97] Empire Football League, Florida Football Alliance, Mason-Dixon Football League,[98][99][100] MidStates Football League,[101][102][103] Minor Football League,[104][105][106] New England Football League and The Pacific Coast Football League.[107][108][109] The NEFL is unique in the American sports landscape, allowing promotion and relegation among conferences.

In Canada there are three prominent leagues: Maritime Football League in the east, Northern Football Conference in Ontario and the Alberta Football League in the west.

Under USA Football strict criteria, players in this level are eligible for the United States national American football team.

International American Football Leagues

American football is a growing sport worldwide, and has the International Olympic Committee recognition since 2013. Over the years the NFL tried to expend their exposure to additional markets, when they played some of their games outside of the United States. The first game outside of US and Canada played in Japan in 1976,[110] in 1978 they played in Mexico,[111] and in 1983 the NFL had their first game in Europe (London, United Kingdom).[112]

After the success of the international series in the '80s, foreign countries have established their own leagues and have earned a reputation over the years, and even begun to attract some American players.[113] Usually, the foreign players in the National Football League moved to the US early, and played the game in college, but there is one exception – Moritz Böhringer, who was drafted in 2016 directly from the German Football League (although he still has not played in official game).

Since 2017, the Canadian Football League tried to globalize as well, and made partnership agreements with football leagues in Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom.[114] The league held special global scouting combine in Europe, Mexico and Japan,[115] and in 2019 held a special draft for Mexican born players, and another one for European players.[116] Today the CFL featured two designated "global players" roster spots from countries outside the U.S. and Canada on its nine member clubs.[117]

Another league that has entered into partnership agreements with american league for players developments is the Elite Football League of India which has an agreement with the Gridiron Developmental Football League.[118]

Australian Football League
Main article: Australians in American football

American football is a very different gridiron code than that of Australian rules football played in the Australian Football League (AFL).[119] However, the punting specialist position requires similar skills to those used in Australian rules football, and made the transition easier for the players from down under.[120][121] The most successful player to ever make the transition is Darren Bennett, which started his NFL career after finishing his "Ausi rules" one and was selected to the NFL 1990s All-Decade Team.

Because salaries are usually up to five times higher in the US,[119] a high number of players try their luck in the american game. In the last decade, the NFL has placed full-time development officers in Australia, and there is a full-time punting academy in the Australian continent – Prokick Australia[122] – which is aimed at training and assessing talented punters from the country for positions in major U.S. colleges and the NFL.

Although the vast majority of Australian players in the NFL are punters, there are few exemptions. The most known one is the Offensive tackle Jordan Mailata, who played Rugby league and was drafted in 2018 without college experience,[123] while another example is Joel Wilkinson who signed with the Arizona Cardinals as a cornerback. Defensive end Adam Gotsis is probably the most successful non-punter Australian; He played in college (Georgia Tech) and was drafted in the second round of the 2016 NFL Draft by the Denver Broncos. Other notable players are Jarryd Hayne and Jesse Williams.

Current and planned Minor leagues

Current leagues

High-level

Low-level

Developmental

1: The league is in hiatus after it declared for bankruptcy and was later sold to Dany Garcia, Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson and RedBird Capital.[51][131][132][133][134]
2: The league stated that it had no plans to host a 2020 competition.

Planned leagues

High-level

Mid-level

Developmental

Defunct Minor leagues

High-level[55]

Originally South Atlantic Football Association
Became American Professional Football Association in 1938, American Football League in 1939
Merged with the Texas Football League (1966–1968)
Became Trans-American Football League in 1970–1971

Mid-level

Low-level[55]

Became Interstate League in 1933

1: Pottsville Maroons moved to the NFL.
2: Informal association of teams, the Portsmouth Spartans would later move to the NFL.
3: American Association suspended operations for duration of U.S. involvement in World War II; in 1946 the AA was renamed American Football League.
4: Merged with PCPFL in 1945.
5: The league was in hiatus and re-branded as the NFL Europe League in 1995.
6: Two separate attempts, with different managements.
7: Reformatted as the developmental The Spring League.
8: Merged with CoFL in 1969.
*: Folded without playing.

Potential markets overview

This is a list of proposed cities for minor-leagues of American football, including both current and historical proposals originating from academic research, from past or future attempts or ones that were proposed by the media. The most common were Orlando, Florida; Memphis, Tennessee; Birmingham, Alabama; San Antonio, Texas; Portland, Oregon; and Sacramento, California.

High-level
City Population
(Metro)		 Propose Stadium Capacity
[*]		 Market Potential Past Pro-Football Teams Other Pro Sports Teams
Avg. Att. League
Columbus, Ohio[166][167] 2,424,831 Mapfre Stadium/
Ohio Stadium		 19,968/
102,780		 30,891 World League
(1991)		 Columbus Panhandles (NFL)
Columbus Chevrolets (OVL)
Columbus Bobbs (MWFL)
Columbus Bullies (AFL III)
Columbus Colts (UFL I)
Ohio Glory (WLAF)		 Columbus Crew (MLS)
Columbus Blue Jackets (NHL)

Columbus Clippers (MiLB)
Columbus Destroyers (IFL)

St. Louis, Missouri[167] 2,807,338 The Dome 66,965
(28,352)		 28,541 XFL
(2020)		 St. Louis All-Stars (NFL)
St. Louis Gunners (NFL)
St. Louis Blues (AFL)
St. Louis Cardinals (NFL)
St. Louis Rams (NFL)		 St. Louis Cardinals (MLB)
St. Louis Blues (NHL)
Orlando, Florida[168][167] 2,267,846 Spectrum Stadium/
Exploria Stadium		 44,206/
25,500		 19,648 AAF
(2019)		 Orlando Broncos (SFL)
Orlando Panthers (CoFL)
Florida Blazers (WFL)
Orlando Americans (AFA)
Orlando Renegades (USFL)
Orlando Thunder (WLAF)
Orlando Rage (XFL)
Florida Tuskers (UFL)
Orlando Apollos (AAF)		 Orlando Magic (NBA)
Orlando City S.C. (MLS)

Orlando Predators (NAL)
Orlando Solar Bears (ECHL)

San Antonio, Texas[169][168][167] 2,277,550 Alamodome 64,000
(39,500)		 27,721 AAF
(2019)		 San Antonio Toros (CoFL)
San Antonio Wings (WFL)
San Antonio Charros (AFA)
San Antonio Gunslingers (USFL)
San Antonio Riders (WLAF)
San Antonio Texans (CFL)
San Antonio Matadors (SFL)
San Antonio Commanders (AAF)		 San Antonio Spurs (NBA)

San Antonio Rampage (AHL)
San Antonio Missions (MiLB)
San Antonio FC (USL)

Portland, Oregon[170][169][168][171][167] 2,314,554 Providence Park 25,218 19,919 USFL
(1985)		 Portland Boilermakers (WIFL)
Portland Rockets (AFL)
Portland Loggers (CoFL)
Portland Thunder (WFL)
Portland Breakers (USFL)
Oregon Lightning Bolts (PSFL)		 Portland Trail Blazers (NBA)
Portland Timbers (MLS)
Sacramento, California[168][167] 2,600,000 Hughes Stadium/
Railyards Stadium		 20,311/
21,000		 18,775 UFL
(2011)		 Sacramento Wildcats (CaFL)
Sacramento Nuggets (PCFL)
Sacramento Capitols (CoFL)
Sacramento Surge (WLAF)
Sacramento Gold Miners (CFL)
Sacramento Mountain Lions (UFL)		 Sacramento Kings (NBA)

Sacramento River Cats (MiLB)
Sacramento Republic FC (USL)

Oakland, California[167][172] 4,729,484 Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum/
California Memorial Stadium/
East Bay Stadium (TBD)		 56,057/
62,467/
18,000		 35,005
{Bay Area}		 XFL
(2001)		 Oakland Cardinals (CaFL)
Oakland Hornets (AFL)
Oakland Giants (PCFL)
Oakland Invaders (USFL)
Oakland Raiders (NFL)		 Oakland Athletics (MLB)
Golden State Warriors (NBA)

Oakland Panthers (IFL)
Oakland Roots SC (NISA)

San Diego, California[170][167] 3,095,313 SDCCU Stadium 70,561
(54,000)		 19,154 AAF
(2019)		 San Diego Bombers (PCFL)
San Diego Gunners (AFL)
San Diego Chargers (NFL)
San Diego Fleet (AAF)		 San Diego Padres (MLB)

San Diego Gulls (AHL)
San Diego Strike Force (IFL)
San Diego Loyal SC (USL)

* Modified stadium capacity.

Borderline High-level
  • Cities with over 1 million residents (metropolitan areas).
  • At least one team in one of the US Major professional sports leagues (current or former).
  • Not represented by the NFL.
  • Top 70 US media market.
  • High-level facilities.
  • History of professional football in one of the high-level football leagues.
City Population
(Metro)		 Propose Stadium Capacity
[*]		 Market Potential Past Pro-Football Teams Other Pro Sports Teams
Avg. Att. League
Hartford, Connecticut[173][167] 1,212,381 Pratt & Whitney Stadium 38,066 14,365 UFL
(2010)		 Hartford Blues (NFL)
Hartford Knights (ACFL)
Hartford Charter Oaks (CoFL)
Hartford Colonials (UFL)		 Hartford Wolf Pack (AHL)
Hartford Yard Goats (MiLB)
Hartford Athletic (USL)
Newark, New Jersey
(New York Metro)[173]		 938,506
(21,045,000)		 MetLife Stadium/

Red Bull Arena

 82,500 (33,346)/
25,000		 14,875 XFL
(2020)		 Newark Bears (AFL I)
Newark Tornadoes (NFL)
Newark Blues (Eastern)
Newark Fighting Irish (EFL)
Newark Bombers (AA)
Jersey Tigers (ACFL)
New Jersey Generals (USFL)
NY-NJ Knights (WLAF)
NY-NJ Hitmen (XFL)		 New Jersey Devils (NHL)

New Jersey Jackals (MiLB)

Hampton Roads, Virginia[168][167][139] 1,707,369 William "Dick" Price Stadium/
Foreman Field/
Virginia Beach Sportsplex		 30,000/
22,480/
17,000		 12,985 UFL
(2011)		 Norfolk Clancys (Ind.)
Norfolk Shamrocks (Dixie)
Newport News Builders (Dixie)
Norfolk Brown Bombers (VNFL)
Norfolk Neptunes (CoFL)
Virginia Hunters (AFA)
Norfolk Pirates (CFL)
Virginia Destroyers (UFL)		 Norfolk Tides (MiLB)
Norfolk Admirals (ECHL)
Virginia Beach City FC (NPSL)
Raleigh, North Carolina[167][171] 1,214,516 Carter–Finley Stadium 57,583 14,030 World League
(1991)		 Raleigh–Durham Skyhawks (WLAF) Carolina Hurricanes (NHL)

Durham Bulls (MiLB)
North Carolina FC (USL)

Louisville, Kentucky[169] 1,262,261 Cardinal Stadium/
Lynn Family Stadium/
Louisville Slugger Field		 61,000/
14,000/
13,131		 - - Louisville Breckenridges (NFL)
Louisville Bourbons (AFL)
Louisville Tanks (APFL)
Louisville Raiders (UFL I)
Kentucky Trackers (AFA)		 Louisville Bats (MiLB)
Louisville City FC (USL)
Kentucky Xtreme (AAL)
Omaha, Nebraska[168][171] 1,136,211 TD Ameritrade Park 24,000 22,785 UFL
(2011)		 Omaha Mustangs (CoFL)
Omaha Nighthawks (UFL)
Omaha Mammoths (FXFL)		 Omaha Storm Chasers (MiLB)
Omaha Beef (CIF)
Union Omaha (USL)
Memphis, Tennessee[167][171] 1,341,746 Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium 58,207 12,944 AAF
(2019)		 Memphis Tigers (AFL)
Memphis Grizzlies (WFL)
Memphis Showboats (USFL)
Memphis Mad Dogs (CFL)
Memphis Maniax (XFL)
Memphis Express (AAF)		 Memphis Grizzlies (NBA)

Memphis Redbirds (MiLB)
Memphis 901 FC (USL)
Memphis Hustle (G League)

Birmingham, Alabama[167][169][171] 1,136,650 Legion Field/
Protective Stadium (2021)		 71,594/
45,000		 14,307 AAF
(2019)		 Birmingham Vulcans (WFL)
Birmingham Fire (WLAF)
Birmingham Barracudas (CFL)
Birmingham Thunderbolts (XFL)
Team Alabama (AAFL)
Alabama Blackbirds (UNGL)
Birmingham Iron (AAF)		 Birmingham Barons (MiLB)
Birmingham Legion FC (USL)
Birmingham Bulls (SPHL)
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma[170][169][168][171][167] 1,319,677 Memorial Stadium (Norman)/
Chickasaw Bricktown Ballpark		 86,112
(61,836)/
13,066		 - - Oklahoma City Chiefs (AFL)
Oklahoma City Plainsmen (CoFL)		 Oklahoma City Thunder (NBA)

Oklahoma City Dodgers (MiLB)
Oklahoma City Energy (USL)
Oklahoma City Blue (G League)

Salt Lake City, Utah[168][171][167] 1,140,483 Rice Eccles Stadium/
Rio Tinto Stadium		 45,807/
20,213		 9,067 AAF
(2019)		 Salt Lake Seagulls (PCFL)
Utah Pioneers (PSFL)
Salt Lake Stallions (AAF)		 Utah Jazz (NBA)
Real Salt Lake (MLS)

Salt Lake Bees (MiLB)
Utah Grizzlies (ECHL)
Real Monarchs (USL)
Salt Lake City Stars (G League)

San Jose, California[167] 1,894,389 CEFCU Stadium/
Avaya Stadium		 21,520/
18,000		 - - San Jose Mustangs (PCFL)
San Jose Apaches (CoFL)
San Jose Demons (XFL)		 San Jose Sharks (NHL)
San Jose Earthquakes (MLS)

San Jose Barracuda (AHL)

* Modified stadium capacity.

Mid-level
  • Cities with over 400,000 residents (metropolitan areas).
  • High level facilities.
  • Not represented by the NFL.
  • Top 90 US media market.
  • High level minor league team in one of the US Major professional sports; or
History of professional football in one of the high-level football leagues; or
Deep historical (state) football roots - amateur or pro, preferably with a FBS program in the city.
City Population
(Metro)		 Propose Stadium Capacity
* 		Market Potential Past Pro-Football Teams Other Pro Sports Teams
Avg. Att. League
Syracuse, New York[174] 662,577 Carrier Dome/
NBT Bank Stadium		 49,262/
11,071		 - - Syracuse Pros (Ind.)
Syracuse Braves (AFL II)
Syracuse Stormers (UFL I)		 Syracuse Crunch (AHL)
Syracuse Mets (MiLB)
Syracuse FC (NPSL)
Toledo, Ohio[175] 608,145 Glass Bowl 26,038 - - Toledo Maroons (NFL)
Toledo Tornadoes (UFL I)
Ohio Cannon (RFL)		 Toledo Mud Hens (MiLB)
Toledo Walleye (ECHL)
Greensboro, North Carolina 723,801 BB&T Stadium 21,500 - - Greensboro Patriots (Dixie) Greensboro Grasshoppers (MiLB)
Greensboro Swarm (G League)
Carolina Cobras (NAL)
North Carolina Fusion U23 (USL)
Little Rock, Arkansas[139] 724,385 War Memorial Stadium/
Quigley Stadium		 53,727/
15,000		 - - Arkansas Diamonds (CoFL, AFA)
Arkansas Miners (PSFL)
Team Arkansas (AAFL)		 Arkansas Travelers (MiLB)
Little Rock Rangers (NPSL)
Jackson, Mississippi[176] 576,382 Mississippi Veterans Memorial Stadium 62,512 - - Mississippi Stars (AFA)
CFL Mississippi (CFL)
Mississippi Pride (RFL)		 Mississippi Braves (MiLB)
Mississippi Brilla (NPSL)
Mobile, Alabama[177] 414,079 Ladd-Peebles Stadium 40,000
(33,471)		 11,278 RFL
(1999)		 Mobile Buccaneers (SFL)
Mobile Tarpons (NAFL)
Mobile Admirals (RFL)		 AFC Mobile (NPSL)
Shreveport, Louisiana[178][179] 446,471 Independence Stadium 49,565 17,871 CFL
(1995)		 Shreveport Steamer (WFL)
Shreveport Americans (AFA)
Shreveport Pirates (CFL)
Shreveport Knights (RFL)
Louisiana Lancers (UNGL)
Tulsa, Oklahoma[180] 961,561 Skelly Field 30,000 20,497 USFL
(1984)		 Tulsa Oilers (AFL)
Tulsa Thunderbirds (TFL)
Tulsa Mustangs (AFA)
Oklahoma Outlaws (USFL)		 Tulsa Roughnecks (USL)
Tulsa Drillers (MiLB)
Tulsa Oilers (ECHL)
El Paso, Texas[181] 844,818 Sun Bowl 51,500 - - El Paso Jets (TFL) El Paso Locomotive FC (USL)
El Paso Chihuahuas (MiLB)
Albuquerque, New Mexico[166] 907,301 Dreamstyle Stadium 39,224 - - New Mexico Rattlesnakes (PSFL) New Mexico United (USL)
Albuquerque Isotopes (MiLB)
Duke City Gladiators (IFL)
Tucson, Arizona[173] 1,010,025 Arizona Stadium 50,782 9,932
{AZ}		 AAF
(2019)		 - Tucson Roadrunners (AHL)
Tucson Saguaros (MiLB)
Tucson Sugar Skulls (IFL)
Fresno, California[182] 972,297 Bulldog Stadium 40,727 - - Fresno Wine Crushers (CaFL) Fresno Grizzlies (MiLB)
Fresno FC (USL)
Honolulu, Hawaii‡ [169] 953,207 Aloha Stadium 50,000 13,040 WFL
(1974)		 Hawaiian Warriors (PCFL)
The Hawaiians (WFL)		 -
Monterrey, Mexico‡ [183][184][185] 4,520,329 Estadio Universitario (UANL)/
Estadio de Béisbol Monterrey		 41,615/
21,906		 11,546 CoFL
(1969)		 Mexico Golden Aztecs (CoFL)
Monterrey Steel (NAL)		 Tigres (Liga MX)

Sultanes de Monterrey (MiLB)
Fundidores Monterrey (LFA)

* Modified stadium capacity.
‡ Not part of continental United States.

Borderline Mid-level
History of professional football in one of the high-level football leagues; or
Deep historical (state) football roots - amateur or pro.
City Population
(Metro)		 Propose Stadium Capacity
* 		Market Potential Past Pro-Football Teams Other Pro Sports Teams
Avg. Att. League
Rochester, New York[173] 1,082,284 Marina Auto Stadium 13,768 - - Rochester Jeffersons (NFL)
Rochester Oxfords (Ind.)
Rochester Braves (AFL II)
Rochester Tigers (AFL II)		 Rochester Americans (AHL)
Rochester Razorsharks (PBL)
Rochester Red Wings (MiLB)
Rochester Rhinos (USL)
Rochester Knighthawks (NLL)
Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania 841,914 Goodman Stadium/
J. Birney Crum Stadium		 16,000/
15,000		 - - Wilkes-Barre Barons (Anthracite)
Bethlehem Bears (Eastern)
Wilkes-Barre Panthers (EPL)
Bethlehem Bulldogs (AA)
Wilkes-Barre Bullets (AA)		 Lehigh Valley Phantoms (AHL)
Lehigh Valley IronPigs (MiLB)
Lehigh Valley United (USL)
Lehigh Valley Steelhawks (NAL)
Ypsilanti, Michigan
(Detroit Metro)[173]		 344,791
(4,292,060)		 Rynearson Stadium 30,200 27,355 USFL
(1984)		 Ypsilanti Vikings (MPFL)
Detroit Wheels (WFL)
Michigan Panthers (USFL)
Michigan Coyotes (Stars)		 Michigan Bucks (USL)
Michigan Stars FC (NPSL)
USPBL (MiLB)
Canton, Ohio[139] 404,422 Tom Benson Stadium 23,000 - - Canton Bulldogs (NFL)
Canton Bulldogs (UFL I)
Canton Centaurs (CoFL)
Ohio Marauders (UNGL)		 Canton Charge (G League)
Fort Wayne, Indiana 419,453 Parkview Field 8,100 - - Fort Wayne Friars (Ind.)
Fort Wayne Pyramids (Ind.)
Fort Wayne Red Devils (Ind.)
Fort Wayne Warriors (CoFL)		 Fort Wayne TinCaps (MiLB)
Fort Wayne Mad Ants (G League)
Fort Wayne Komets (ECHL)
Charleston, West Virginia[188] 211,037 Laidley Field 18,600 - - Charleston Rockets (CoFL)
West Virginia Rockets (AFA)		 West Virginia Power (MiLB)
West Virginia Alliance FC (USL)
Greenville, South Carolina[167] 895,923 Paladin Stadium 16,000 - - Greenville Mountaineers (SCFL) Greenville Drive (MiLB)
Greenville Triumph SC (USL)
Greenville Swamp Rabbits (ECHL)
Carolina Predators (AAL)
Chattanooga, Tennessee[176] 547,776 Finley Stadium 20,668 - - Chattanooga Cherokees (SFL)
Chattanooga Redskins (NAFL)		 Chattanooga Lookouts (MiLB)
Chattanooga FC (NISA)
Chattanooga Red Wolves SC (USL)
Gwinnett County, Georgia
(Atlanta Metro)		 936,250
(5,949,951)		 Coolray Field 10,427 10,895
{Atlanta}		 AAF
(2019)		 Atlanta Spartans (ACFL)
Georgia Raiders (UAFL)		 Gwinnett Stripers (MiLB)
Atlanta Gladiators (ECHL)
Atlanta United 2 (USL)
Georgia Swarm (NLL)
Daytona Beach, Florida[189] 609,939 Daytona Stadium 9,601
(15,000)		 - - Daytona Beach Thunderbirds (SFL)
Daytona Beach Racers (Stars)		 Daytona Tortugas (MiLB)
Daytona SC (USL)
Quad Cities[170]
(Illinois, Iowa)		 474,937 Almquist Field 16,000 - - Rock Island Independents (NFL)
Quad Cities Raiders (CoFL)
Quad City Mohawks (MPFL)		 Quad Cities River Bandits (MiLB)
Quad City Storm (SPHL)
Quad City Steamwheelers (IFL)
Des Moines, Iowa[166][176] 599,789 Drake Stadium 14,557 - - Des Moines Ford Motors (Ind.)
Des Moines Comets (NWFL)
Des Moines Warriors (PFLA)
Des Moines Vikings (MPFL)		 Iowa Wild (AHL)
Iowa Cubs (MiLB)
Iowa Wolves (G League)
Iowa Barnstormers (IFL)
Des Moines Menace (USL)
Wichita, Kansas[176][190] 644,888 Cessna Stadium 24,000 - - Wichita Wind Surge (MiLB)
Wichita Thunder (ECHL)
Wichita Force (CIF)
Colorado Springs, Colorado 738,939 Falcon Stadium 46,692 - - [191] Rocky Mountain Vibes (MiLB)
Colorado Springs Switchbacks FC (USL)
Bakersfield, California[182] 839,631 Memorial Stadium 23,468
(19,468)		 - - Bakersfield Condors (AHL)
Bakersfield Train Robbers (MiLB)
Reno, Nevada[192] 425,417 Mackay Stadium 30,000 - - Reno A.C. (Ind.) Reno Aces (MiLB)
Reno 1868 FC (USL)
Reno Express (AWFC)
Boise, Idaho[193] 709,845 Bronco Stadium 36,387 - - Boise Hawks (MiLB)
Idaho Steelheads (ECHL)
Idaho Horsemen (AWFC)
Spokane, Washington 547,924 Joe Albi Stadium 28,646 - - Spokane Manlowes (WIFL)
Spokane Shockers (CoFL)		 Spokane Indians (MiLB)
Spokane Shock (IFL)

    * Modified stadium capacity.

    Minor American football proposed cities
    Locations of teams — High-level Minor Borderline High-level Minor Mid-level Minor Borderline Mid-level Minor. Not shown: Honolulu, Hawaiʻi

    Other Markets

    Boston, Massachusetts - "Beantown" is the largest US city and biggest TV market[194] not represented in the NFL, and is the ninth highest media market in the US, and fifth on the east coast. Over the years there was three separate attempts to establish NFL team in the city - Boston Bulldogs, Boston Braves and Boston Yanks - but all of them failed and relocated or disbanded after short period. Today the "local" team considered to be the New England Patriots which sits at Foxboro, Massachusetts, but branded as a area team for the New England region. The last attempt to establish a pro team was the Boston Brawlers of the now defunct FXFL, but it failed miserably at the gate and relocated after its inaugural season.

    Providence, Rhode Island - The Rhode Island state capital is highest GPD (nominal) per capita U.S. metropolitan area without a major team. Providence also had a very successful history in pro football, as the Providence Steamrollers won the 1928 NFL championship, but suspend operations in the Great Depression. However, the New England Patriots of Foxboro, Massachusetts is probably the reason no other team called the city home since 1960, as they actually slightly closer to Providence then to Boston and, as mentioned earlier, branded as a area team for the New England region.

    Milwaukee, Wisconsin - Wisconsin has a lot of love for its state football teams - the Wisconsin Badgers and the NFL's Green Bay Packers, which previously hosted games in the now defunct Milwaukee County Stadium.[195] The city even had its own team - the Badgers - from 1922 to 1926. Today, Milwaukee no longer hold a college football team at D-I or D-II level, after their decline in the 70's, and therefore don't hold a suitable stadium to host a pro team because the new Miller Park isn't big enough to have a football layout.[196]

    Baton Rouge, Louisiana - Louisiana's second-largest city (after New Orleans) is often mentioned as a potential target for the pro football team, but past attempts have always been unsuccessful. There's a main reason for it: the fact that it is the LSU Tigers stomping ground with the addition of HBCUs powerhouse Southern Jaguars.[197] Because of that, most minor league franchises fail, and as of 2020, Louisiana is the only state in continental US with no MiLB team.[198] Therefore, other leagues usually preferred Shreveport–Bossier market and the mostly unused Independence Stadium.

    Austin, Texas - The State Capital of Texas could rival any other city with its appetite for football, and it would be only the second pro teams in the city.[199] Alas, most efforts are likely to fail, as any football would have to rival the big show in town – the Texas Longhorns football team. Also, its proximity to San Antonio will probably nix most attempts.[170]

    Las Vegas, Nevada - "Sin City" is a booming tourist destination that was ready to be major league for a long time, and three separate leagues dipped their toes in the market (CFL, XFL and the UFL). The problem? other major leagues took notice, and put the city on top of their expansion/relocation list, including the NFL Raiders that now call Las Vegas home.

    Ohio - The Buckeye State has deep Pro Football roots, as the state was home to five of the 14 original teams in the NFL inaugural season.[200] Akron[171] and Dayton[167] are probably the other biggest candidates, but their proximity to an NFL markets (Cleveland and Cincinnati respectively), and the lack of success of other minor league franchises, will probably make them a secondary option at best. Another possibility is Youngstown, but the low available personal income and bad modern-tradition as a minor league market,[201] will stop most efforts at initial stages.

    New York - Upstate New York built its reputation around a strong "sandlot football" circuit, and has a storied football history that is far older than the National Football League. The northern circuit succeeded in recruiting the country's best college players, was part in the "birth of Pro-Football" and invented the Thanksgiving football. The early leagues had teams in Rochester, Buffalo, Syracuse and even in Tonawanda and Watertown, while the more modern leagues featured teams in NYC five boroughs.[173][202] Today, the state capital Albany and Long Island are probably the other candidates for professional market, as they both proved to support minor teams and have suitable facilities (the Bob Ford Field and the Kenneth P. LaValle Stadium, respectively).

    Florida - The Sunshine State is typically a hotbed of football talent, and with 10 Division I football schools, the state year-round appetite for the game is insatiable. Combine with the warm weather in the area, the abundance of fans who plan their vacations according to spring training and the great facilities state wide, practically every city with 100,000 residents or more is a potential for a professional market. Tallahassee is probably the biggest candidate with two suitable stadiums (Doak Campbell Stadium and Bragg Memorial Stadium), but Fort Lauderdale (Central Broward Regional Park or the future Miami Freedom Park) and Fort Myers (JetBlue Park) are not far behind. Another option is Pensacola, but the lack of suitable venue will probably deter most endeavors.

    Canada - The roots of the game in Canada run deep, with the first documented football game in country taking place in 1861, eight years before the first game in the United States. The first attempt of "northern expansion" was in 1964 with the Quebec Rifles (later moved Toronto) in the original United Football League, but it wasn't the last. Over the years, there were four total teams that called Canada home - Montreal Beavers and the Victoria Steelers joined the CoFL in 1966 and 1967 (respectively), while the World League of American Football Montreal Machine was the last one to play in 1992. Nevertheless, the team that had the most impact on future endeavors has been the WFL's Toronto Northmen, who never played a game in the city, but triggered the Canadian Football Act - which gives a government-protected monopoly over professional football in Canada to the Canadian Football League (CFL). The legislation never passed, but discouraged most future attempts.

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