Vedic Sanskrit grammar

Vedic Sanskrit is the Indo-Aryan language used in the religious hymns known as the Vedas, composed from the early-to-mid 2nd millennium through to the mid 1st millennium, BCE. It was a spoken language during that period. Its grammar differs in certain respects from the grammar of the later Classical Sanskrit.

Differences from Classical Sanskrit

Compared with Classical Sanskrit, Vedic had a subjunctive mood absent in Pāṇini's grammar and generally believed to have disappeared by then at least in common sentence constructions. All tenses could be conjugated in the subjunctive and optative moods, in contrast to Classical Sanskrit, with no subjunctive and only a present optative. However, the old first-person subjunctive forms were used to complete the Classical Sanskrit imperative. The three synthetic past tenses (imperfect, perfect and aorist) were still clearly distinguished semantically in (at least the earliest) Vedic. A fifth mood, the injunctive, also existed.

Long-i stems differentiate the Devi and Vrkis feminines, a difference lost in Classical Sanskrit.

• The subjunctive mood of Vedic was also lost in Classical Sanskrit. Also, there was no fixed rule about the use of various tenses (luṇ, laṇ and liṭ).
• There were more than 12 ways of forming infinitives in Vedic, of which Classical Sanskrit retained only one form.
• Nominal declinations and verbal conjugation also changed pronunciation, although the spelling was mostly retained in Classical Sanskrit. E.g., along with the Classical Sanskrit's declension of deva- as devaḥ—devau—devāḥ, Vedic additionally allowed the forms daivaḥ—daivā—daivāsaḥ. Similarly Vedic has declined forms such as asmai, tvai, yuṣmai, tvā, etc. for the first and second person pronouns, not found in Classical Sanskrit. The obvious reason is the attempt of Classical Sanskrit to regularize and standardize its grammar, which simultaneously led to a purge of older Proto-Indo-European forms.
• To emphasize that Proto-Indo-European and its immediate daughters were essentially end-inflected languages, both Proto-Indo-European and Vedic had independent prefix-morphemes. Such prefixes (especially for verbs) could come anywhere in the sentence, but in Classical Sanskrit, it became mandatory to attach them immediately before the verb.

Morphology

Nouns

Vedic is a highly inflected language with three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and three numbers (singular, plural, dual). It has eight cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, and locative.

In this article nouns are divided into five declensions. The declension which a noun belongs to is determined largely by form.

The basic declension suffix scheme for nouns and adjectives

The basic scheme is given in the table below — valid for almost all nouns and adjectives. However, according to the gender and the ending consonant/vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are predetermined rules of compulsory sandhi which would then give the final inflected word.[1]

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	-ः (-Ø) -ḥ (-Ø)	-ौ (-ी) -āu (-ī)	-ाः (-ि) -aḥ (-i)
Vocative	-Ø
Accusative	-म (-Ø) -m (-Ø)
Instrumental	-ा -ā	-भ्याम् -bhyām	-भिः -bhiḥ
Dative	-े -ai		-भयः -bhyaḥ
Ablative	-ः -aḥ
Genitive		-ोः -auḥ	-ाम् -ām
Locative	-ि -i	-ोः -auḥ	-सु -su

a-stems

A-stems ([a] and [ɑː]) (also known as thematic stems) comprise the largest class of nouns. As a rule, nouns belonging to this class, with the uninflected stem ending in short-a ([a]), are either masculine or neuter. Nouns ending in long-ā ([ɑː]) are almost always feminine. A-stem adjectives take the masculine and neuter in short-a ([a]), and feminine in long-ā ([ɑː]) in their stems. This class is so big because it also comprises the Proto-Indo-European o-stems.

	Masculine (वीर vīrá 'man, hero')			Neuter (हव्य​ havyá 'sacrificial oblation')			Feminine (इळा íḷā 'refreshing draught, libation')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	वीरः vīráḥ	वीरौ vīrā́ú	वीराः vīrā́ḥ (°ā́saḥ)	हव्यम् havyám	हव्यो havyáu	हव्या, हव्यानि havyā́, havyā́ni	इळा íḷā	इळे íḷai	इळाः ílāḥ
Vocative	वीर​ vī́ra			हव्य​ hávya	हव्ये hávyai		इळे íḷai
Accusative	वीरम् vīrám		वीरान् vīrā́n	हव्यम् havyám			इळाम् íḷām
Instrumental	वीरेण, वीरा vīráiṇa, vīrā́	वीराभ्याम् vīrā́bhyām	वीरैः, वीरेभिः vīrāíḥ, vīráibhiḥ	हव्येन, हव्या havyáina, havyā́	हव्याभ्याम् havyā́bhyām	हव्यैः, हव्येभिः havyāíḥ, havyáibhiḥ	इळा, इळया íḷā, íḷayā	इळाभ्याम् íḷābhyām	इळाभिः íḷābhiḥ
Dative	वीराय​ vīrā́ya		वीरेभ्यः vīráibhyaḥ	हव्याय​ havyā́ya		हव्येभ्यः havyáibhyaḥ	इळायै íḷāyai		इळाभ्यः íḷābhyaḥ
Ablative	वीरात् vīrā́t			हवयात् havyā́t			इळायाः íḷāyāḥ
Genitive	वीरस्य vīrásya	वीरयोः vīráyauḥ	वीराणाम् vīrā́ṇām	हव्यस्य​ havyásya	हव्ययोः havyáyauḥ	हव्यानाम् havyā́nām		इळयोः íḷayauḥ	इळानाम् íḷānām
Locative	वीरे vīrái		वीरेषु vīráiṣu	हव्ये havyái		हव्येषु havyáiṣu	इळायाम् íḷāyām		इळाषु íḷāṣu

i- and u-stems

i-stems

	Masc. (पति pati 'host, husband')			Neuter (वारि vāri 'water')			Fem. (मति mati 'thought')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	पतिः patis	पती patī	पतयः patayas	वारि vāri	वारिणी vāriṇī		मतिः matis	मती matī	मतयः matayas
Vocative	पते patai			वारि, वारे vāri, vārai			मते matai
Accusative	पतिम् patim	पती patī	पतीन् patīn	वारि vāri			मतिम् matim		मतीः matīs
Instrumental	पतिना patinā	पतिभ्याम् patibhyām	पतिभिः patibhis	वारिणा vāriṇā	वारिभ्याम् vāribhyām	वारिभिः vāribhis	मत्या matyā	मतिभ्याम् matibhyām	मतिभिः matibhis
Dative	पतये patayai		पतिभ्यः patibhyas	वारिणे vāriṇai		वारिभ्यः vāribhyas	मत्यै matyāi		मतिभ्यः matibhyas
Ablative	पतेः patais			वारिणः vāriṇas			मत्याः matyās
Genitive		पत्योः patyaus	पतीनाम् patīnām		वारिणोः vāriṇaus	वारिणाम् vāriṇām		मत्योः matyaus	मतीनाम् matīnām
Locative	पतौ patāu		पतिषु patiṣu	वारिणी vāriṇi		वारिषु vāriṣu	मत्याम् matyām		मतिषु matiṣu

u-stems

	Masc. (वायु vāyu 'wind')			Neuter (मधु madhu 'honey')			Fem. (शत्रु śatru 'she-enemy')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	वायुः vāyus	वायू vāyū	वायवः vāyavas	मधु madhu	मधुनी madhunī		शत्रुः śatrus	शत्रू śatrū	शत्रवः śatravas
Vocative	वायो vāyau						शत्रो śatrau
Accusative	वायुम् vāyum		वायुन् vāyūn				शत्रुन् śatrum		शत्रूः śatrūs
Instrumental	वायुणा vāyuṇā	वायुभ्याम् vāyubhyām	वायुभिः vāyubhis	मधुना madhunā	मधुभ्याम् madhubhyām	मधुभिः madhubhis	शत्र्वा śatrvā	शत्रुभ्याम् śatrubhyām	शत्रुभिः śatrubhis
Dative	वायवे vāyavai		वायुभ्यः vāyubhyas	मधुनै madhunai		मधुभ्यः madhubhyas	शर्त्र्वै śatrvāi		शत्रुभ्यः śatrubhyas
Ablative	वायोः vāyaus			मधुनः madhunas			शत्र्वाः śatrvās		शत्रुभ्यः śatrubhyas
Genitive		वाय्वोः vāyvaus	वायूनाम् vāyūnām		मधुनोः madhunaus	मधूनाम् madhūnām		शत्र्वोः śatrvaus	शत्रूणाम् śatrūṇām
Locative	वायौ vāyāu		वायुषु vāyuṣu	मधुनि madhuni		मधुषु madhuṣu	शत्र्वाम् śatrvām		शत्रुषु śatruṣu

ī- and ū -stems

See also: Devi and Vrkis feminines

Ī- and ū -stems are only feminine.

	ī-stems (पत्नी patnī 'hostess, wife')			ū-stems (वधू vadhū 'bride')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	पत्नी patnī	पत्न्यौ patnyāu	पत्न्यः patnyas	वधूः vadhūs	वधवौ vadhvāu	वध्वः vadhvas
Vocative	पत्नि patni			वधु vadhu
Accusative	पत्नीम् patnīm		पत्नीस् patnīs	वधूम् vadhūm		वधूस् vadhūs
Instrumental	पत्न्या patnyā	पत्नीभ्याम् patnībhyām	पत्नीभिः patnībhis	वध्वा vadhvā	वधूभ्याम् vadhūbhyām	वधूभिः vadhūbhis
Dative	पत्न्यै patnyāi		पत्नीब्यस् patnībhyas	वध्वै vadhvāi		वधूभ्यः vadhūbhyas
Ablative	पत्न्याः patnyās			वध्वाः vadhvās
Genitive		पत्न्योः patnyaus	पत्नीनाम् patnīnām		वध्वोः vadhvaus	वधूनाम् vadhūnām
Locative	पत्न्याम् patnyām		पत्नीषु patnīṣu	वध्वाम् vadhvām		वधूषु vadhūṣu

ṛ and ṝ-stems

ṛ-stems are predominantly agental derivatives like neut. dātṛ 'giver', though also include kinship terms like masc. pitṛ 'father', naptṛ 'nephew', bhrātṛ" 'brother' and fem. mātṝ 'mother', duhitṝ 'daughter' and svasṝ 'sister'.

	Masculine (पितृ​ pitṛ 'father')			Neuter (दातृ dātṛ 'giver')			Feminine (मातृ mātṝ 'mother')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	पित pita	पितरौ pitarāu	पितरः pitaras	दातृ dātṛ	दातृणी dātṛṇī		माता mātā	मातारौ mātārāu	मातारः mātāras
Vocative	पितर् pítar						मातार् mātār
Accusative	पितरम् pitaram		पितॄन् pitṝn				मातारम् mātāram		मातॄः mātṝs
Instrumental	पित्रा pitrā	पितॄभ्याम् pitṛbhyām	पितृभिः pitṛbhis	दातृण​ dātṛṇā	दातृर्भ्याम् dātṛbhyām	दातृभिः dātṛbhis	मातारा mātārā	मातॄभ्याम् mātṝbhyām	मातॄभिः mātṝbhis
Dative	पित्रे pitrai		पितृभ्यः pitṛbhyas	दातृणे dātṛṇai		दातृभ्यः dātṛbhyas	मातारै mātārai		मातृभ्यः mātṝbhyas
Ablative	पितुर्, पित्रः pitur, pitras			दातृणः dātṛṇas			मातारः mātāras
Genitive		पित्रोः pitraus	पितॄणाम् pitṝṇām		दातृणोः dātṛṇaus	दातृणाम् dātṝṇām		मातरोः mātaraus	मातॄणाम् mātṝṇām
Locative	पितरि pitari		पितृषु pitṛṣu	दातृणि dātṛṇi		दातृषु dātṛṣu	माताराम् mātārām		मातॄषु mātṝṣu

Monosyllabic stems

Long vowel stems

	ā-stems (जा jā 'prodigy')			ī-stems (स्त्री strī 'woman, wife')			ū-stems (भू bhū 'earth')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	जाः jās	जौ jāu	जाः jās	स्त्रीः strīs	स्त्रियौ striyāu	स्त्रियः striyas	भूः bhūs	भुवौ bhuvāu	भुवः bhuvas
Vocative
Accusative	जाम् jām		जाः, जः jās, jas	स्त्रियम् striyam			भुवम् bhuvam
Instrumental	जाम् jā	जाभ्याम् jābhyām	जाभिः jābhis	स्त्रिय striyā	स्त्रीभ्याम् strībhyām	स्त्रीभिः strībhis	भुवा bhuvā	भूब्याम् bhūbhyām	भूभिः bhūbhis
Dative	जे jai		जाभ्यः jābhyas	स्त्रिये, स्त्रियै striyai, striyāi		स्त्रीभ्यः strībhyas	भुवे, भुवै bhuvai, bhuvāi		भूभ्यः bhūbhyas
Ablative	जः jas			स्त्रियः, स्त्रियाः striyas, striyās			भुवः, भुवाः bhuvas, bhuvās
Genitive		जौः jaus	जानाम्, जाम् jānām, jām		स्त्रियौः striyaus	स्त्रियाम्, स्त्रीनाम् striyām, strīnām		भुवौः bhuvaus	भुवाम्, भूनाम् bhuvām, bhūnām
Locative	जि, जाम् ji, jām		जासु jāsu	स्त्रियि, स्त्रियाम् striyi, striyām		स्त्रीषु strīṣu	भुवि, भुवाम् bhuvi, bhuvām		भूषु bhūṣu

Diphthong stems

	āu-stems (नौ nāu 'ship, boat')			au-stems (गो gau 'cow, bull')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	नौः nāus	नावौ nāvāu	नावः nāvas	गौः gāus	गावौ gāvāu	गावः gāvas
Vocative
Accusative	नावम् nāvam		नावः nāvas	गावम्, गाम् gāvam, gām		गावः, गाः gāvas, gās
Instrumental	नावा nāvā	नौभ्याम् nāubhyām	नौभिः nāubhis	गवा gavā	गोभ्याम् gaubhyām	गोभिः gaubhis
Dative	नवै nāvai		नौभ्यः nāubhyas	गवै gavai		गोभ्यः gaubhyas
Ablative	नावः nāvas			गवः, गोः gavas, gaus
Genitive		नवोः nāvaus	नावाम् nāvām		गवोः gavaus	गवाम् gavām
Locative	नावि, नावाम् nāvi, nāvām		नौषु nāuṣu	गवि, गवाम् gavi, gavām		गोषु gauṣu

Compounds

One other notable feature of the nominal system is the very common use of nominal compounds, which may be huge (10+ words) as in some modern languages such as German. Nominal compounds occur with various structures, however morphologically speaking they are essentially the same. Each noun (or adjective) is in its (weak) stem form, with only the final element receiving case inflection. Some examples of nominal compounds include:

Dvandva द्वन्द्व​ (co-ordinative)

These consist of two or more noun stems, connected in sense with 'and'. There are mainly two kinds of dvandva द्वन्द्व​ constructions in Sanskrit. The first is called itaraitara dvandva इतरेतर द्वन्द्व, an enumerative compound word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. e.g. rāma-lakṣmaṇāu रामलक्ष्मणौ – Rama and Lakshmana, or rāma-lakṣmaṇa-bharata-śatrughnāh रामलक्ष्मणभरतशत्रुघ्नाह् – Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata and Satrughna. The second kind is called samāhāra dvandva समार द्वन्द्व​, a collective compound word, the meaning of which refers to the collection of its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the singular number and is always neuter in gender. e.g. pāṇipādam पाणिपादम् – limbs, literally hands and feet, from pāṇi पाणि 'hand' and pāda पाद​ 'foot'. According to some grammarians, there is a third kind of dvandva, called aikaśaiṣa dvandva एकशेष द्वन्द्व or residual compound, which takes the dual (or plural) form of only its final constituent member, e.g. pitarau for mātā + pitā, mother + father, i.e. parents. According to other grammarians, however, the aikaśaiṣa एकशेष is not properly a compound at all.

Bahuvrīhi बहुव्रीहि (possessive)

Bahuvrīhi बहुव्रीहि, or "much-rice", denotes a rich person—one who has much rice. Bahuvrīhi compounds refer (by example) to a compound noun with no head -- a compound noun that refers to a thing which is itself not part of the compound. For example, "low-life" and "block-head" are bahuvrihi compounds, since a low-life is not a kind of life, and a block-head is not a kind of head. (And a much-rice is not a kind of rice.) Compare with more common, headed, compound nouns like "fly-ball" (a kind of ball) or "alley cat" (a kind of cat). Bahurvrīhis can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice", or "much riced".

Tatpuruṣa तत्पुरुष (determinative)

There are many tatpuruṣas (one for each of the nominal cases, and a few others besides); in a tatpuruṣa, the first component is in a case relationship with another. For example, a doghouse is a dative compound, a house for a dog. It would be called a "caturthitatpuruṣa" चतुर्थितत्पुरुष​ (caturthi चतुर्थि refers to the fourth case—that is, the dative). Incidentally, "tatpuruṣa" is a tatpuruṣa तत्पुरुष ("his man"—meaning someone's agent), while "caturthitatpuruṣa" चतुर्थितत्पुरुष is a karmadhārya, being both dative, and a tatpuruṣa. An easy way to understand it is to look at English examples of tatpuruṣas: "battlefield", where there is a genitive relationship between "field" and "battle", "a field of battle"; other examples include instrumental relationships ("thunderstruck") and locative relationships ("towndwelling").

Karmadhāraya कर्मधारय​ (descriptive)

The relation of the first member to the last is appositional, attributive or adverbial, e. g. uluka-yatu उलुकयतु (owl+demon) is a demon in the shape of an owl.

Amraiḍita अम्रेडित​ (iterative)

Repetition of a word expresses repetitiveness, e. g. dinai dinai दिनेदिने 'day by day', 'day after day', 'daily'.

Dvigu द्विगु

Dvigu is a subtype of tatpuruṣa in which the modifying member is a number. Dvigu (lit., "[a] two-cow [person]"; i.e., one who has two cows) itself is a compound : द्वो+गवौ dvau+gāvau.

Personal pronouns and determiners

The first and second person pronouns are declined for the most part alike, having by analogy assimilated themselves with one another.

Note: Where two forms are given, the second is enclitic and an alternative form. Ablatives in singular and plural may be extended by the syllable -tas; thus mat or mattas, asmat or asmattas.

	First Person			Second Person			Third Person
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular
Nominative	अहम् aham	आवाम् āvām	वयम् (अस्माः) vayam (asmās)	त्वम् tvam	युवाम् yuvām	यूयम् (युष्माः) yūyam (yuṣmās)	स्वम् svam
Accusative	माम्, मा mām, mā	आवाम्, नौ āvām, nāu	अस्मान्, नः asmān, nas	त्वाम्, त्वा tvām, tvā	युवाम्, वाम् yuvām, vām	युष्मान्, वः yuṣmān, vas	स्वाम्, स्वा svām, svā
Instrumental	मया mayā	आवाभ्याम् āvābhyām	अस्माभिः asmābhis	त्वया tvayā	युवाभ्याम् yuvābhyām	युष्माभिः yuṣmābhis	स्वया svayā
Dative	मह्यम्, मे mahyam, mai	आवाभ्याम्, नौ āvābhyām, nāu	अस्मभ्यम्, (अस्मभ्यः), नः asmabhyam, (asmabhyas), nas	तुभ्यम्, ते tubhyam, tai	युवाभ्याम्, वाम् yuvābhyām, vām	युष्मभ्यम्, (युष्मभ्यः), वः yuṣmabhyam, (yuṣmabhyas), vas	सुभ्यम्, से subhyam, sai
Ablative	मत् mat	आवाभ्याम् āvābhyām	अस्मत्, (अस्मभ्यः) asmat, (asmabhyas)	मत् tvat	युवाभ्याम् yuvābhyām	युष्मत्, (युष्मभ्यः) yuṣmat, (yuṣmabhyas)	स्वत् svat
Genitive	मम​, मे mama, mai	आवयोः, नौ āvayaus, nāu	अस्माकम्, नः asmākam, nas	तव​, ते tava, tai	युवयोः, वाम् yuvayaus, vām	युष्माकम्, वः yuṣmākam, vas	सव​, से sava, sai
Locative	मयि mayi	आवयोस् āvayaus	अस्मासु asmāsu	त्वयि tvayi	युवयोः yuvayaus	युष्मासु yuṣmāsu	स्वयि svayi

The demonstrative ta, declined below, also functions as the third person pronoun.

	Masculine			Neuter			Feminine
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	तः, सः tas, sas	तौ tāu	ते tai	तत् tat	ते tai	तानि tāni	ता, सा tā, sā	ते tai	तः tās
Accusative	तम् tam	तौ tāu	तान् tān	तत् tat	ते tai	तानि tāni	तम् tām	ते tai	ताः tās
Instrumental	तेन taina	ताभ्याम् tābhyām	तेभ्यिः, तैः taibhis, tāis	तेन taina	ताभ्याम् tābhyām	तेभिः, तैः taibhis, tāis	तया tayā	ताभ्याम् tābhyām	ताभिः tābhis
Dative	तस्मै tasmāi	ताभ्याम् tābhyām	तेभ्यः taibhyas	तस्मै tasmāi	ताभ्याम् tābhyām	तेभ्यः taibhyas	तस्यै tasyāi	ताभ्याम् tābhyām	ताभ्यः tābhyas
Ablative	तस्मात् tasmāt	ताभ्याम् tābhyām	तेभ्यः taibhyas	तस्मात् tasmāt	ताभ्याम् tābhyām	तेभ्यः taibhyas	तस्याः tasyās	ताभ्याम् tābhyām	ताभ्यः tābhyas
Genitive	तस्य(:) tasya(s)	तयोः tayaus	तेषाम् taiṣām	तस्य(:) tasya(s)	तयोः tayaus	तेषाम् taiṣām	तस्याः tasyās	तयोः tayaus	तासाम् tāsām
Locative	तस्मिन् tasmin	तयोः tayaus	तेषु taiṣu	तस्मिन् tasmin	तयोः tayaus	तेषुः taiṣu	तस्याम् tasyām	तयोः tayaus	तेषु tāsu

Interrogative pronoun ka 'what' is declined in the same way, except neuter Sg.Nom./Acc. having kim (also kam, kad) form.

Numerals

Cardinal numbers

The cardinal numbers from one to ten are:

1. aika
2. d(u)vāu
3. tri
4. catur
5. pañca
6. ṣaṣ
7. sapta
8. aṣṭāu
9. nava
10. daśa

All numbers are declinable. Aika is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. D(u)vāu appears only in the dual. Tri, catur and ṣaṣ are declined irregularly. The numbers from 5 to 19 do not have any difference in genders.

	Two			Three			Four			Six
	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	M.N.F.
Nominative	dvāu	dvai	dvai	trayas	trīṇi	tisrás	catvā́ras	catvā́ri	catasras	ṣaṭ
Accusative	dvāu	dvai	dvai	trīn	trīṇi	tisrás	catúras	catvā́ri	catasras	ṣaṭ
Instrumental	dvābhyām	dvābhyām	dvābhyām	tribhís	tribhís	tisṛ́bhis	catúrbhis	catúrbhis	catasṛ́bhis	ṣaḍbhis
Dative	dvābhyām	dvābhyām	dvābhyām	tribhyás	tribhyás	tisṛ́bhyas	catúrbhyas	catúrbhyas	catasṛ́bhyas	ṣaḍbhyas
Ablative	dvābhyām	dvābhyām	dvābhyām	tribhyás	tribhyás	tisṛ́bhyas	catúrbhyas	catúrbhyas	catasṛ́bhyas	ṣaḍbhyas
Genitive	dvayaus	dvayaus	dvayaus	triyāṇā́m	triyāṇā́m	tisṛṇā́m	caturṇā́m	caturṇā́m	catasṛṇā́m	ṣaṇṇām
Locative	dvayaus	dvayaus	dvayaus	triṣú	triṣú	tisṛ́ṣu	catúrṣu	catúrṣu	catasṛ́ṣu	ṣaṭsu

The numbers from 11 to 19 are:

aikādaśam, dvādaśam, trayaudaśam, caturdaśam, pañcadaśam, ṣauḍaśam, saptadaśam, aṣṭādaśam, navadaśam.

The tens from 20 to 90 are:

(d)viṃśati, triṃśat, catvāriṃśat, pañcāśat, ṣaṣṭi, saptati, aśīti, navati.

The joint numbers:

21 - aikaviṃśati, 22 - dvāviṃśati, 23 - trayauviṃśati, ..., 26 - ṣaḍviṃśati, ..., but 82 - dvāśīti, 83 - trayāśīti, 88 - aṣṭāśīti.

The hundreds are:

śatam, dvai śatai, trīṇi śatāni / tri śatam, etc.

1000 - sahasra.

Ordinal numbers

The ordinal numbers from one to ten are:

1. prathamas, -ā
2. dvitīyas, -ā
3. tṛtīyas, -ā
4. caturthas, -ī
5. pañcamas, -ī
6. ṣaṣṭhas, -ī
7. saptamas, -ī
8. aṣṭamas, -ī
9. navamas, -ī
10. daśamas, -ī

Other numbers:

11. - aikādaśas, ... 20. - viṃśatitamas (viṃśas), 30. - triṃśattamas (triṃśas), 40. - catvāriṃśattamas, 50. - pañcāśattamas, 60. - ṣaṣtitamas, 70. - saptatitamas, 80. - aśītitamas, 90. - navatitamas, 100. - śatatamas, 1000. - sahasratamas.

Verbs

Classification of verbs

Sanskrit has ten classes of verbs divided into two broad groups: athematic and thematic. The thematic verbs are so called because an a, called the theme vowel, is inserted between the stem and the ending. This serves to make the thematic verbs generally more regular. Exponents used in verb conjugation include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and reduplication. Every root has (not necessarily all distinct) zero, guṇa, and vṛddhi grades. If V is the vowel of the zero grade, the guṇa-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the vṛddhi-grade vowel as ā + V.

Grades

Vowel (zero) grade	a, -	i, ī	u, ū	ṛ, ṝ	ḷ
Short diphthong (Guṇa) grade	a, ai	ai	au	ar	al
Long diphthong (Vṛddhi) grade	ā, āi	āi	āu	ār	āl

Tense systems

The verbs tenses (a very inexact application of the word, since more distinctions than simply tense are expressed) are organized into four 'systems' (as well as gerunds and infinitives, and such creatures as intensives/frequentatives, desideratives, causatives, and benedictives derived from more basic forms) based on the different stem forms (derived from verbal roots) used in conjugation. There are four tense systems:

• Present (Present, Imperfect, Imperative, Optative)
• Perfect
• Aorist
• Future (Future, Conditional)

Present system

The present system includes the present tense, the imperfect, and the optative and imperative moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old subjunctive. The tense stem of the present system is formed in various ways. The numbers are the native grammarians' numbers for these classes.

For thematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through:

• 1. Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with guṇa strengthening, for example, bháva- from bhū 'be', bhara- from bhṛ (guṇa form bhar-) 'bring'.
• 6. Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with a shift of accent to this vowel, for example tudá- from tud 'thrust'.
• 4. Suffixation of ya, for example dī́ vya- from div 'play', paśya- from pś 'see'.

For athematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through:

• 2. No modification at all, for example ad- from ad 'eat'.
• 3. Reduplication prefixed to the root, for example juhu- from hu 'sacrifice', dadhā- from dhā 'put'.
• 7. Infixion of ná or n before the final root consonant (with appropriate sandhi changes), for example rundh- or ruṇadh- from rudh 'obstruct', yunaj- from yuj 'join' (yunakti 'he joins').
• 5. Suffixation of nu (guṇa form náu), for example sunu- from su 'press out', stṛnau- from stṛ 'strew' (stṛnumas 'we strew', stṛnvanti 'they strew').
• 8. Suffixation of u (guṇa form au), for example tanu- from tan 'stretch'. For modern linguistic purposes it is better treated as a subclass of the 5th. tanu- derives from tnnu-, which is zero-grade for *tannu-, because in the Proto-Indo-European language [m] and [n] could be vowels (i.e. [am], [an]), which in Sanskrit (and Greek) change to [a]. Most members of the 8th class arose this way; kar- 'make, do' was 5th class in Vedic (krnauti 'he makes'), but shifted to the 8th class in Classical Sanskrit (karauti 'he makes')
• 9. Suffixation of nā (zero-grade nī or n), for example krīṇa- or krīṇī- from krī 'buy', pūna- from pū 'clean'.
• 10. This class described by native grammarians refers to a process which is derivational in nature, and thus not a true tense-stem formation. It is formed by suffixation of ya with guṇa or vṛddhi strengthening and lengthening of the root's last vowel, for example bhāvaya- (< bāu-a-ya-) from bhū 'be', pūjaya- from pūj 'honour', cauraya- from cur (guṇa form caur-) 'steal', dāvaya- from du (vṛddhi form dāv-) 'burn'.

The present system also differentiates strong and weak forms of the verb. The strong/weak opposition manifests itself differently depending on the class:

• The root and reduplicating classes (2 & 3) are not modified in the weak forms, and receive guṇa in the strong forms.
• The nasal class (7) is not modified in the weak form, extends the nasal to ná in the strong form.
• The nu-class (5) has nu in the weak form and náu in the strong form.
• The nā-class (9) has nī in the weak form and nā́ in the strong form. nī disappears before vocalic endings.

Perfect system

The perfect is used mainly in the indicative. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system.

The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.

The perfect in the Sanskrit can be in form of the simple perfect and the periphrastic perfect.

The Simple Perfect can form an augmented Pluperfect, and beyond the indicative mood it can also form Perfect Subjunctives, Optatives, and Imperatives. All of these are lost in Classical Sanskrit, when it forms only indicatives.

The simple perfect is the most common form and can be made from most of the roots. The simple perfect stem is made by reduplication and if necessary by stem lengthening. The conjugated form takes special perfect endings. The periphrastic perfect is used with causative, desiderative, denominative and roots with prosodic long anlauted vowel (except a/ā). Only few roots can form both the simple and the periphrastic perfect. These are bhṛ 'carry', uṣ 'burn', vid 'know', bhi 'to be afraid', hu 'sacrifice'.

Aorist system

The aorist system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. abhūs 'you were') and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with mā in prohibitions, e.g. mā bhūs 'don't be'). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – a- prefixed to the stem.

The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. bhū-: a-bhū-t 'he was'). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as vowel reduction of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of s to the stem. The sibilant aorist by itself has four formations:

• athematic s-aorist
• athematic iṣ-aorist
• athematic siṣ-aorist
• thematic s-aorist

Future system

The future system is formed with the suffixation of -sya- or -iṣya- and guṇa, both in the simple future and conditional. There exists also so called periphrastic future, which is made by adding suffix tṝ to the stem and the short as 'to be' form.

Conjugation

Each verb has a grammatical voice, whether active, passive or middle. There is also an impersonal voice, which can be described as the passive voice of intransitive verbs. Sanskrit verbs have an indicative, an optative and an imperative mood. Older forms of the language had a subjunctive, though this had fallen out of use by the time of Classical Sanskrit.

Basic conjugational endings

Conjugational endings in Vedic convey person, number, and voice. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.

	Person	Active			Middle
		Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Primary	1.	-mi	-vás	-más	-ái	-váhai	-máhai
	2.	-si	-thás	-thá	-sái	-ā́thai, -áithai	-dhvái
	3.	-ti	-tás	-ánti, -áti	-tái	-ā́tai, -áitai	-ántai, -átai
Secondary	1.	-am	-vá	-má	-í, -á, - ái	-váhi	-máhi
	2.	-s	-tám	-tá, -tána	-thā́s	-ā́thām, -áithām	-dhvám
	3.	-t	-tā́m	-án, -ús	-tá	-ā́tām, -áitām	-ánta, -áta, -rán
Perfect	1.	-a	-vá	-má	-ái	-váhai	-máhai
	2.	-tha	-áthus	-á	-sái	-ā́thai, -áithai	-dhvái
	3.	-a	-átus	-ús	-ái	-ā́tai, -áitai	-rái
Imperative	1.	-āni	-va	-ma	-āi	-vahāi	-mahāi
	2.	-dhí, -hí, -ø	-tám	-tá	-svá	-ā́thām, -áithām	-dhvám
	3.	-tu	-tā́m	-ántu, -átu	-tā́m	-ā́tām, - áitām	-ántām, -átām
Subjunctive	1.	-ā, -āni	-vá	-má	-āi	-váhāi	-máhāi, -máhai
	2.	-si, -s	-thás	-thá	-sāi, -sái	-ā́ithai	-dhvā́i
	3.	-ti, -t	-tás	-(á)n	-tāi, -tái	-ā́itai	-ántai, -ánta

Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect, imperative and subjunctive endings are used with the perfect, imperative and subjunctive respectively.

In present and imperfect indicative singular active forms have the accent on the stem and take strong forms, while the other forms have the accent on the endings and take weak forms.

In imperative accent is variable and affects vowel quality. Forms which are end-accented trigger guṇa strengthening, and those with stem accent do not have the vowel affected.

The Passive voice forms for all tenses and moods are made by adding -ya- to the zero-grade stem and then adding the middle voice ending of appropriate tense and mood.

The Causative is made by adding the suffix aya to the vṛddhi form. For example, karauti 'he does/makes', and kārayati 'he lets do/make'.

The Desiderative is made by reduplication of the root and the suffix sa. For example, karauti 'he does, makes', and cikīrṣati 'he wishes to do/make'. It can be also combined with causative, e.g. kārayati 'he lets do' and cikārayiṣati 'he wishes to let to do'.

The Intensive (or sometimes called Frequentative) describes a repeated or particularly intensive activity. With verbs of the movement it means "back and forth". The intensive is formed by reduplication of the root and the suffix ya with middle endings for thematic stems, and without suffix and active endings for athematic stems. For example, bhramati 'it curves around', and baṃbhramyatai 'it curves cross and crosswise around'.

Examples of conjugation

bhū - 'to be'

The present indicative takes primary endings.

Present, Indicative

Person	Active			Middle
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.	bhavāmi	bhavāvas(i)	bhavāmas(i)	bhav(ām)ai	bhavāvahai	bhavāmahai
2.	bhavasi	bhavathas	bhavatha	bhavasai	bhavaithai	bhavadhvai
3.	bhavati	bhavatas	bhavanti	bhavatai	bhavaitai	bhavantai

The imperfect takes secondary endings and adds augment a- before stem.

Imperfect, Indicative

Person	Active			Middle
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.	ábhavam	ábhavāva	ábhavāma	ábhav(ām)ai	ábhavāvahi	ábhavāmahi
2.	ábhavas	ábhavatam	ábhavata	ábhavathās	ábhavaithām	ábhavadhvam
3.	ábhavat	ábhavatām	ábhavan	ábhavata	ábhavaitām	ábhavanta

The aorist takes secondary endings.

Aorist stems

Simple aorist	Benedictive / Precative	Injunctive / Prohibitive
abhū-	bhūyā-	(mā) bhū-

The perfect takes perfect endings.

Perfect

Person	Active			Middle
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.	babhūva	babhūviva	babhūvima	babhūvai	babhūvivahai	babhūvimahai
2.	babhū(vi)tha	babhūthus	babhūva	babhūsai	babhūvaithai	babhūvadhvai
3.	babhūva	babhūtus	babhūvus	babhūvai	babhūvaitai	babhūrai

The optative takes secondary endings. -ya- is added to the stem both in the active and the middle. In some forms the cluster ya is dropped out.

Optative

Person	Active			Middle
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.	bhavaiyām	bhavai(yā)va	bhavai(yā)ma	bhavaiya(m)	bhavai(yā)vahi	bhavai(yā)mahi
2.	bhavai(ya)s	bhavai(ya)tam	bhavai(ya)ta	bhavai(ya)thās	bhavaiyāthām	bhavai(ya)dhvam
3.	bhavai(yā)t	bhavai(ya)tām	bhavaiyus	bhavai(ya)ta	bhavaiyātām	bhavairan

The imperative takes imperative endings.

Imperative

Person	Active			Middle
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.	bhavāni, bhava	bhavāva	bhavāma	bhav(ām)āi	bhavāvahāi	bhavāmahāi
2.	bhava(hi), bhavatāt	bhavatam	bhavata	bhavasva(m)	bhavaithām	bhavadhvam
3.	bhavatu	bhavatām	bhavantu	bhavatām	bhavaitām	bhavantām

The subjunctive takes subjunctive endings.

Subjunctive

Person	Active			Middle
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.	bhavā(ni)	bhavāva	bhavāma	bhav(ām)āi	bhavāvahāi	bhavāmahāi
2.	bhavas(i)	bhavāthas	bhavātha	bhavāsāi	bhavāithai	bhavadhvāi
3.	bhavat(i)	bhavātas	bhavān	bhavātāi	bhavāitai	bhavanta(i)

The future takes primary endings. -iṣya- is added to the stem, both in the active and the middle/passive.

Future, Indicative

Person	Active			Middle/Passive
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.	bhaviṣyāmi	bhaviṣyāva	bhaviṣyāma	bhaviṣy(ām)ai	bhaviṣyāvahai	bhaviṣyāmahai
2.	bhaviṣyasi	bhaviṣyathas	bhaviṣyatha	bhaviṣyasai	bhaviṣyaithai	bhaviṣyadhvai
3.	bhaviṣyati	bhaviṣyatas	bhaviṣyanti	bhaviṣyatai	bhaviṣyaitai	bhaviṣyantai

The second or periphrastic future is made by adding suffix tṝ to the stem and the short as 'to be' form, except 3rd person, both singular and plural, having feminine ṝ-stem nominative endings, e.g., bhavi- + tā + asmi = bhavitāsmi, but bhavi- + tā/tārāu/tāras = bhavitā/bhavitārāu/bhavitāras. The passive forms are identical to the middle forms.

Periphrastic future

Person	Active			Middle/Passive
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.	bhavitāsmi	bhavitāsvas	bhavitāsmas	bhavitāsmai	bhavitāsvahai	bhavitāsmahai
2.	bhavitāsi	bhavitāsthas	bhavitāstha	bhavitāsai	bhavitāsāthai	bhavitā(sa)dhvai
3.	bhavitā	bhavitārāu	bhavitāras	bhavitā	bhavitārāu	bhavitāras

The conditional takes secondary endings. -iṣya- is added to the stem, both in the active and the middle/passive.

Conditional

Person	Active			Middle/Passive
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.	ábhaviṣyam	ábhaviṣyāva	ábhaviṣyāma	ábhaviṣy(ām)ai	ábhaviṣyāvahi	ábhaviṣyāmahi
2.	ábhaviṣyas	ábhaviṣyatam	ábhaviṣyata	ábhaviṣyathās	ábhaviṣyaithām	ábhaviṣyadhvam
3.	ábhaviṣyat	ábhaviṣyatām	ábhaviṣyan	ábhaviṣyata	ábhaviṣyaitām	ábhaviṣyanta

The following stems can take all endings.

Other stems

Passive	Causative	Desiderative	Intensive
bhūya-	bhāvaya-	bubhūṣa-	baubhavī-

Participles

Present participle			Past participle		Future participle		Gerund	Perfect participle
Active	Middle	Passive	Active	Passive	Active	Passive	Passive	Active	Middle
bhava(n)tas, -ī	bhavāmānas, -ā	bhūyamānas, -ā	bhūtava(n)tas, -ī	bhūtas, -ā	bhaviṣya(n)tas, -ī	bhavitavyas, -ā	bhāvyas, -ā	babhūvas, babhūṣī	babhūvānas, -ā

Undeclinable forms

Infinitive	Absolutive
bhūtum, bhavitum	bhūtvā, -bhūya

as - 'to be'

The as 'to be' has the long and the short form. The long form is very rarely used.

Present, Indicative

Person	Active						Middle
	Long form			Short form			Long form			Short form
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.	asāmi	asāvas	asāmas	asmi	svas	smas	as(ām)ai	asāvahai	asāmahai	hai	svahai	smahai
2.	asasi	asathas	asatha	asi	sthas	stha	asasai	asāthai	asadhvai	sai	sāthai	dhvai
3.	asati	asatas	asanti	asti	stas	santi	asatai	asātai	asantai	stai	sātai	santai

Imperfect, Indicative

Person	Active						Middle
	Long form			Short form			Long form			Short form
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1.	āsam	asāva	āsāma	āsam	asva	āsma	āsāmai	āsāvahi	āsāmahi	āsmai	āsvahi	āsmahi
2.	āsīs	āsatam	āsata	āsīs	āstam	āsta	āsathās	āsaihām	āsadhvam	āsthās	āsaithām	āsadhvam
3.	āsīt	āsatām	āsan	āsīt	āstām	āsan	āsata	āsaitām	āsanta	āsta	āsaitām	āsanta

Syntax

Because of Vedic's complex declension system the word order is free (with tendency toward SOV).

See also

• Vedic
• Classical Sanskrit
• Old Persian grammar
• Vedic accent

References

1. MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (1916). A Vedic Grammar for Students. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. p. 48.

• Ernst Wilhelm Oskar Windisch, Berthold Delbrück, Die altindische Wortfolge aus dem Catagathabrahmana
• Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Vedic Grammar (1910)
• Arthur Anthony MacDonell, A Vedic Grammar for Students. Bombay, Oxford University Press. (1916/1975)
• Bruno Lindner, 'Altindische Nominalbildung: Nach den S̆amhitas dargestellt (1878)
• Michael Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.
• Müller M., Sanskrit Grammatik, Leipzig (1868)
• Renou L., Grammaire de la langue védique, Paris (1952)
• William Dwight Whitney, Sanskrit Grammar. 5th edn. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (1924) [1st ed. 1879]

External links

Grammars

• Charles Wikner "A Practical Sanskrit Introductory"
• A vaishnava version of Pānini's grammar: Harivenu Dāsa "An Introductory Course based on Šrīla Jīva Gosvāmī's Grammar"

Morphology

• Julia Papke "Order and Meaning in Sanskrit Preverbs"
• Paul Kiparsky "The Vedic Injunctive: Historical and Synchronic Implications"
• Paul Kiparsky "Aspect and Event Structure in Vedic"
• V. Swaminathan "Panini’s Understanding of Vedic Grammar"
• Daniel Baum "The Imperative in the Rigveda"
• "The «Virtually Unknown» Benedictive Middle in Classical Sanskrit"
• The Sanskrit Heritage Site