Sanskrit nouns

Sanskrit is a highly inflected language with three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and three numbers (singular, plural, dual). It has eight cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, and locative.[1]

Nouns are grouped into "declensions", which are sets of nouns that form their cases in a similar manner. In this article they are divided into five declensions. The declension to which a noun belongs is determined largely by form.

Cases

Sanskrit nouns have eight cases: nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, and vocative.[2] Of these eight cases, Pāṇini identified six as kārakas, or accessories to a verb. The six kārakas are the nominative, accusative, dative, instrumental, locative, and ablative cases.[3] He defined them as follows (Ashtādhyāyi, I.4.24-54):

1. Apādāna (lit. 'take off'): "(that which is) firm when departure (takes place)." This is the equivalent of the ablative case, which signifies a stationary object from which movement proceeds.
2. Sampradāna ('bestowal'): "he whom one aims at with the object". This is equivalent to the dative case, which signifies a recipient in an act of giving or similar acts.
3. Karaṇa ("instrument") "that which effects most." This is equivalent to the instrumental case.
4. Adhikaraṇa ('location'): or "substratum." This is equivalent to the locative case.
5. Karman ('deed'/'object'): "what the agent seeks most to attain". This is equivalent to the accusative case.
6. Kartā ('agent'): "he/that which is independent in action". This is equivalent to the nominative case. (On the basis of Scharfe, Hartmut (1977). Grammatical literature. History of Indian literature. 5. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz. p. 94. ISBN 978-3447017060.)

Pāṇini did not identify the genitive (Sambandha) and vocative (sambuddha) as cases, in the term of Karakas.[4]

Basic noun and adjective declension

The basic scheme of suffixation is given in the table below and applies to many nouns and adjectives. However, according to the gender and the final consonant or vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are sandhi rules dictating the form of the inflected word.[5]

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	Masc./Fem	Neu.	Masc./Fem	Neu.	Masc./Fem	Neu.
Nominative	ḥ	Ø	au	ī	aḥ	i
Accusative	am
Instrumental	ā		bhyām		bhiḥ
Dative	e				bhyaḥ
Ablative	aḥ
Genitive			oḥ		ām
Locative	i				su

a-stems

A-stems (/ə/ or /aː/) comprise the largest class of nouns. As a rule, nouns belonging to this class, with the uninflected stem ending in short-a (/ə/), are either masculine or neuter. Nouns ending in long-A (/aː/) are almost always feminine. A-stem adjectives take the masculine and neuter in short-a (/ə/), and feminine in long-A (/aː/) in their stems. This class is so big because it also comprises the Proto-Indo-European o-stems.

	Masculine (kāma- 'desire')			Feminine (kānta- 'beloved')			Neuter (āsya- 'mouth')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	kāmaḥ	kāmau	kāmāḥ	kāntā	kānte	kāntāḥ	āsyam	āsye	āsyāni
Accusative	kāmam	kāmau	kāmān	kāntām	kānte	kāntāḥ	āsyam	āsye	āsyāni
Instrumental	kāmena	kāmābhyām	kāmaiḥ	kāntayā	kāntābhyām	kāntābhiḥ	āsyena	āsyābhyām	āsyaiḥ
Dative	kāmāya	kāmābhyām	kāmebhyaḥ	kāntāyai	kāntābhyām	kāntābhyaḥ	āsyāya	āsyābhyām	āsyebhyaḥ
Ablative	kāmāt	kāmābhyām	kāmebhyaḥ	kāntāyāḥ	kāntābhyām	kāntābhyaḥ	āsyāt	āsyābhyām	āsyebhyaḥ
Genitive	kāmasya	kāmayoḥ	kāmānām	kāntāyāḥ	kāntayoḥ	kāntānām	āsyasya	āsyayoḥ	āsyānām
Locative	kāme	kāmayoḥ	kāmeṣu	kāntāyām	kāntayoḥ	kāntāsu	āsye	āsyayoḥ	āsyeṣu
Vocative	kāma	kāmau	kāmāḥ	kānte	kānte	kāntāḥ	āsya	āsye	āsyāni

i- and u-stems

This class contain nouns of all three genders, but its most defining features are best preserved in the masculine forms. Feminine nouns may borrow part of their singular endings from the -ī and -ū classes, and neuters regularly use a derived consonant stem in -in or -un. They are considered part of this class by traditional grammars for etymological reasons, as well as the fact that adjectives in -i and -u complete their paradigms suppletively for the three genders with these forms.

i-stems

	Masculine (agni- 'fire')			Feminine (gati- 'gait')			Neuter (vāri- 'water')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	agniḥ	agnī	agnayaḥ	gatiḥ	gatī	gatayaḥ	vāri	vāriṇī	vārīṇi
Accusative	agnim	agnī	agnīn	gatim	gatī	gatīḥ	vāri	vāriṇī	vārīṇi
Instrumental	agninā	agnibhyām	agnibhiḥ	gatyā	gatibhyām	gatibhiḥ	vāriṇā	vāribhyām	vāribhiḥ
Dative	agnaye	agnibhyām	agnibhyaḥ	gataye, gatyāi	gatibhyām	gatibhyaḥ	vāriṇe	vāribhyām	vāribhyaḥ
Ablative	agneḥ	agnibhyām	agnibhyaḥ	gateḥ, gatyāḥ	gatibhyām	gatibhyaḥ	vāriṇaḥ	vāribhyām	vāribhyaḥ
Genitive	agneḥ	agnyoḥ	agnīnām	gateḥ, gatyāḥ	gatyoḥ	gatīnām	vāriṇaḥ	vāriṇoḥ	vārīṇām
Locative	agnau	agnyoḥ	agniṣu	gatau, gatyām	gatyoḥ	gatiṣu	vāriṇi	vāriṇoḥ	vāriṣu
Vocative	agne	agnī	agnayaḥ	gate	gatī	gatayaḥ	vāri, vāre	vāriṇī	vārīṇi

u-stems

	Masculine (śatru- 'enemy')			Feminine (dhenu- 'cow')			Neuter (madhu- 'honey')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	śatruḥ	śatrū	śatravaḥ	dhenuḥ	dhenū	dhenavaḥ	madhu	madhunī	madhūni
Accusative	śatrum	śatrū	śatrūn	dhenum	dhenū	dhenūḥ	madhu	madhunī	madhūni
Instrumental	śatruṇā	śatrubhyām	śatrubhiḥ	dhenvā	dhenubhyām	dhenubhiḥ	madhunā	madhubhyām	madhubhiḥ
Dative	śatrave	śatrubhyām	śatrubhyaḥ	dhenave, dhenvāi	dhenubhyām	dhenubhyaḥ	madhune	madhubhyām	madhubhyaḥ
Ablative	śatroḥ	śatrubhyām	śatrubhyaḥ	dhenoḥ, dhenvāḥ	dhenubhyām	dhenubhyaḥ	madhunaḥ	madhubhyām	madhubhyaḥ
Genitive	śatroḥ	śatrvoḥ	śatrūṇām	dhenoḥ, dhenvāḥ	dhenvoḥ	dhenūnām	madhunaḥ	madhunoḥ	madhūnām
Locative	śatrau	śatrvoḥ	śatruṣu	dhenāu, dhenvām	dhenvoḥ	dhenuṣu	madhuni	madhunoḥ	madhuṣu
Vocative	śatro	śatrū	śatravaḥ	dheno	dhenū	dhenavaḥ	madhu	madhunī	madhūni

Long-vowel stems

These nouns, mostly feminine, have stems in -ā, -ī, -ū and genitive singular in ās. The -ī and -ū classes decline identically, while the -ā class have different dual and vocative forms, as well as inserts either -āy- or -ay- before oblique case endings beginning with vowels.

	ā-stems (kāntā 'beloved')			ī-stems (patnī 'hostess, wife')			ū-stems (vadhū 'bride')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	kāntā	kānte	kāntās	patnī	patnyau	patnyas	vadhūs	vadhvau	vadhvas
Accusative	kāntām	kānte	kāntās	patnīm	patnyau	patnīs	vadhūm	vadhvau	vadhūs
Instrumental	kāntayā	kāntābhyām	kāntābhis	patnyā	patnībhyām	patnībhis	vadhvā	vadhūbhyām	vadhūbhis
Dative	kāntāyai	kāntābhyām	kāntābhyas	patnyai	patnībhyām	patnībhyas	vadhvai	vadhūbhyām	vadhūbhyas
Ablative	kāntāyās	kāntābhyām	kāntābhyas	patnyās	patnībhyām	patnībhyas	vadhvās	vadhūbhyām	vadhūbhyas
Genitive	kāntāyās	kāntayos	kāntānām	patnyās	patnyos	patnīnām	vadhvās	vadhvos	vadhūnām
Locative	kāntāyām	kāntayos	kāntāsu	patnyām	patnyos	patnīṣu	vadhvām	vadhvos	vadhūṣu
Vocative	kānte	kānte	kāntās	patni	patnyau	patnyas	vadhu	vadhvau	vadhvas

Many one-syllable root nouns in long vowels are inflected in principle as consonant stems, but the feminine ones may also use the longer singular endings of the class proper, in a similar way short -i and -u stem feminines do.

	ā-stems (jā- 'progeny')			ī-stems (dhī- 'thought')			ū-stems (bhū- 'earth')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	jās	jāu	jās	dhīs	dhiyau	dhiyas	bhūs	bhuvau	bhuvas
Accusative	jām	jāu	jās, jas	dhiyam	dhiyau	dhiyas	bhuvam	bhuvau	bhuvas
Instrumental	jā	jābhyām	jābhis	dhiyā	dhībhyām	dhībhis	bhuvā	bhūbhyām	bhūbhis
Dative	je	jābhyām	jābhyas	dhiye, dhiyāi	dhībhyām	dhībhyas	bhuve, bhuvāi	bhūbhyām	bhūbhyas
Ablative	jas	jābhyām	jābhyas	dhiyas, dhiyās	dhībhyām	dhībhyas	bhuvas, bhuvās	bhūbhyām	bhūbhyas
Genitive	jas	jos	jānām, jām	dhiyas, dhiyās	dhiyos	dhiyām, dhīnām	bhuvas, bhuvās	bhuvos	bhuvām, bhūnām
Locative	ji	jos	jāsu	dhiyi, dhiyām	dhiyos	dhīṣu	bhuvi, bhuvām	bhuvos	bhūṣu
Vocative	jās	jau	jās	dhīs	dhiyau	dhiyas	bhūs	bhuvau	bhuvas

ṛ-stems

ṛ-stems are predominantly agental derivatives like dātṛ 'giver', though also include kinship terms like pitṛ 'father', mātṛ 'mother', and svasṛ 'sister'. The neuter equivalents of derivative agental nouns once again form secondary stems in -n, as in the -i and -u classes.

	Masculine (pitṛ 'father')			Feminine (mātṛ 'mother')			Neuter (dātṛ 'giver')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	pitā	pitarau	pitaras	mātā	mātārau	mātāras	dātṛ	dātṛṇī	dātṝṇi
Accusative	pitaram	pitarau	pitṝn	mātāram	mātārau	mātṝs	dātṛ	dātṛṇī	dātṝṇi
Instrumental	pitrā	pitṛbhyām	pitṛbhis	mātārā, mātrā	mātṛbhyām	mātṛbhis	dātṛṇā	dātṛbhyām	dātṛbhis
Dative	pitre	pitṛbhyām	pitṛbhyas	mātāre, mātre	mātṛbhyām	mātṛbhyas	dātṛṇe	dātṛbhyām	dātṛbhyas
Ablative	pitur, pitras	pitṛbhyām	pitṛbhyas	mātāras, mātur	mātṛbhyām	mātṛbhyas	dātṛṇas	dātṛbhyām	dātṛbhyas
Genitive	pitur, pitras	pitros	pitṝṇām	mātāras, mātur	mātaros, mātros	mātṝṇām	dātṛṇas	dātṛṇos	dātṝṇām
Locative	pitari	pitros	pitṛṣu	mātārām, mātari	mātaros, mātros	mātṛṣu	dātṛṇi	dātṛṇos	dātṛṣu
Vocative	pitar	pitarau	pitaras	mātār	mātārau	mātāras	dātṛ	dātṛṇī	dātṝṇi

A single irregular noun, sakhi 'friend', has a stem apparently in -i but declines similarly to this class:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	sakhā	sakhāyau	sakhāyas
Accusative	sakhāyam	sakhāyau	sakhīn
Instrumental	sakhyā	sakhibhyām	sakhibhis
Dative	sakhye	sakhibhyām	sakhibhyas
Ablative	sakhyur	sakhibhyām	sakhibhyas
Genitive	sakhyur	sakhyos	sakhīnām
Locative	sakhyau, sakhayi	sakhyos	sakhiṣu
Vocative	sakhe	sakhāyau	sakhāyas

See also: Devi and Vrkis feminines

Consonant stems

Consonant stem nouns may have up to 3 different stems, as well as two special forms.

1. A special lengthened form for the masculine/feminine nominative singular
2. A special lengthened and/or nasalized form for the neuter nom/acc. plural
3. A strong stem, referred to by traditional grammars as aṅga, used for mas/fem. sing. acc, dual nom/acc and plur. nom.
4. A medium stem pada, used with oblique cases with consonant endings, as well as the neuter nom/acc. sing.
5. A weak stem bha, used everywhere else.

One or more of these stems may be identical for some words, but this is generally not regularly predictable from either the nominative singular or the citation form stem. The case endings themselves are the regular ones listed in the beginning of the page.

Inflection example of words with only one stem; note that the neuter plural still use the special form.

One-stem types	Masculine (marut 'wind')			Feminine (naus 'ship')			Neuter (manas 'mind')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	marut	marutau	marutas	naus	nāvau	nāvas	manas	manasī	manāṃsi
Accusative	marutam	marutau	marutas	nāvam	nāvau	nāvas	manas	manasī	manāṃsi
Instrumental	marutā	marudbhyām	marudbhis	nāvā	naubhyām	naubhis	manasā	manobhyām	manobhis
Dative	marute	marudbhyām	marudbhyas	nāve	naubhyām	naubhyas	manase	manobhyām	manobhyas
Ablative	marutas	marudbhyām	marudbhyas	nāvas	naubhyām	naubhyas	manasas	manobhyām	manobhyas
Genitive	marutas	marutos	marutām	nāvas	nāvos	nāvām	manasas	manasos	manasām
Locative	maruti	marutos	marutsu	nāvi	nāvos	nauṣu	manasi	manasos	manaḥsu
Vocative	marut	marutau	marutas	naus	nāvau	nāvas	manas	manasī	manāṃsi

Example of words with different stems:

1. rājā, rājñas (gen.sg. or bha), rājānas (nom.pl. or aṅga), rājabhis (inst. plur. or pada)
2. dyaus, divas (gen.sg. or bha), divas (nom.pl. or aṅga), dyubhis (inst.plur. or pada)
3. karma (nom.sg. or pada), karmaṇas (gen.sg. or bha), karmāṇi (special neuter nom.plur., here coinciding with the aṅga form of rājā above)

Multiple-stem types	Masculine (rājā 'king')			Feminine (dyaus 'heaven')			Neuter (karma 'deed')
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	rājā	rājānau	rājānas	dyaus	divau	divas	karma	karmaṇī	karmāṇi
Accusative	rājānam	rājānau	rājñas	divam	divau	divas	karma	karmaṇī	karmāṇi
Instrumental	rājñā	rājabhyām	rājabhis	divā	dyubhyām	dyubhis	karmaṇā	karmabhyām	karmabhis
Dative	rājñe	rājabhyām	rājabhyas	dive	dyubhyām	dyubhyas	karmaṇe	karmabhyām	karmabhyas
Ablative	rājñas	rājabhyām	rājabhyas	divas	dyubhyām	dyubhyas	karmaṇas	karmabhyām	karmabhyas
Genitive	rājñas	rājños	rājñām	divas	divos	divām	karmaṇas	karmaṇos	karmaṇam
Locative	rājñi	rājños	rājasu	divi	divos	dyuṣu	karmaṇi	karmaṇos	karmasu
Vocative	rājan	rājānau	rājānas	dyaus	divau	divas	karma	karmaṇī	karmāṇi

The masculine vocative can be a somewhat peculiar case. For the most part, if either the masc.nom.sing. or the aṅga stem ends with -n or some consonant cluster thereof, the vocative is this stem with a short vowel immediately before the -n; and in most other nouns it is identical to the nom.sing. As an example of exception, the word cited as pathin "path" has the forms panthās, pathas, panthānas, pathibhis but vocative panthās instead of the expected panthan; a different consonant ending in the nom.sing. has taken precedence when it is not a cluster starting with n.

Adjectives

a-stem adjectives

This large class uses the -as, -am inflection for the masculine and neuter, and either ā or ī for the feminine depending on the word.

Kāntas, -ā, -am mentioned above is one of such adjectives that use ā for feminine; others, such as sundaras, -ī, -am, use ī in its place.

Pure i- and u-stem adjectives

This class consists of a number of primary adjectives such as bahus, -us, -u "many" and śucis, -is, -i "pure", as well as ones adapted from nouns like bahuvrīhis. They are inflected like the i- and u-stem nouns described above; occasionally the feminine u may gain an additional ī and become vī.

Nouns originally in long -ī, -ū , when used as adjectives, tend to simply extend the feminine forms to masculine. In the neuter however, it is substituted with the same short -i(n), -u(n).

Pure consonant stem adjectives

The majority of this class is adapted from simple consonant stem nouns. Masculine and feminine genders share the same forms, and the neuter may take a strengthened plural form by analogy, or sometimes not use it. The oblique cases are the same for all genders.

vedhās, -ās, -as "virtuous"	Mas/Fem (plural vedhasas )			Neuter (plural vedhāṃsi)
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	vedhās	vedhasau	vedhasas	vedhas	vedhasī	vedhāṃsi
Accusative	vedhasam	vedhasau	vedhasas	vedhas	vedhasī	vedhāṃsi
Vocative	vedhas	vedhasau	vedhasas	vedhas	vedhasī	vedhāṃsi

The neuter noun āyus, -ṣas, -ūṃṣi "life, vitality" and the feminine verbal root-noun vṛt, vṛtas "turn, fold", when adopted as adjectives such as in the compounds dīrghāyus "longlived" and trivṛt "threefold", employ analogously the following adaptations:

	Mas/Fem (plural āyuṣas )			Neuter (plural āyūṃṣi)
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	āyus	āyuṣau	āyuṣas	āyus	āyusī	āyūṃṣi
Accusative	āyuṣam	āyuṣau	āyuṣas	āyus	āyusī	āyūṃṣi

	Mas/Fem (plural vṛtas )			Neuter (plural vṛnti, vṛti)
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	vṛt	vṛtau	vṛtas	vṛt	vṛtī	vṛnti, vṛti
Accusative	vṛtam	vṛtau	vṛtas	vṛt	vṛtī	vṛnti, vṛti

Consonant and ī-stem adjectives

These adjectives use consonant stem forms for the masculine and neuter genders, and a secondary ī-suffix for the feminine.

The masculine exhibits the singular special form mahān and the aṅga form mahāntas; the feminine builds on the bha form mahatī; and the neuter cites the pada form mahat.

mahat "large, great"	Masculine (mahān, mahāntas)			Feminine (mahatī)			Neuter (mahat)
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	mahān	mahāntau	mahāntas	mahatī	mahatyau	mahatyas	mahat	mahatī	mahānti
Accusative	mahāntam	mahāntau	mahatas	mahatīm	mahatyau	mahatīs	mahat	mahatī	mahānti
Instrumental	mahatā	mahadbhyām	mahadbhis	mahatyā	mahatībhyām	mahatībhis	mahatā	mahadbhyām	mahadbhis
Dative	mahate	mahadbhyām	mahadbhyas	mahatyai	mahatībhyām	mahatībhyas	mahate	mahadbhyām	mahadbhyas
Ablative	mahatas	mahadbhyām	mahadbhyas	mahatyās	mahatībhyām	mahatībhyas	mahatas	mahadbhyām	mahadbhyas
Genitive	mahatas	mahatos	mahatām	mahatyās	mahatyos	mahatīnām	mahatas	mahatos	mahatām
Locative	mahati	mahatos	mahatsu	mahatyām	mahatyos	mahatīṣu	mahati	mahatos	mahatsu
Vocative	mahan, mahān	mahāntau	mahāntas	mahati	mahatyau	mahatyas	mahat	mahatī	mahānti

In present participles of the thematic verb classes, the feminine ī-suffix along with the homophonic neuter dual is attached to the aṅga stem in -nt. In the athematic classes, it may be attached to either; in the reduplicated athematic class no aṅga-based forms are used at all, so it is again attached to the -t stem.

Comparatives and superlatives

Primary derivation

A small closed class of comparatives and superlatives are directly formed on adjectival roots, after dropping the original stem suffix. The comparative takes the suffix -īyān(yāṃsas), yasī, yas, which declines as a consonant- and ī-stem adjective; the superlative takes -iṣṭhaḥ, ā, am. The root is strengthened to the guṇa grade.

• from mahān, root mah-, is formed mahīyān, mahiṣṭhaḥ;

• from sthiraḥ "stable", root sthi-, is formed stheyān, stheṣṭhaḥ.

In some adjectives the original form of the root has been obscured by internal sandhi, making the outcome somewhat irregular. Thus:

• from gur-uḥ "heavy", originally g^(w)ṛ-uḥ, comes garīyān, gariṣṭhaḥ;

• from dīrgh-aḥ "long", originally dṝgh- < dṛHgh- (where H denotes a laryngeal), a guṇa placed in the second possible slot (saṃprasāraṇam) gives draHgh- > drāgh-, whence drāghīyān, drāghiṣṭhaḥ;

Secondary derivation

The secondary suffixes of comparison are -taraḥ, ā, am for comparative and -tamaḥ, ā, am for superlative. They are appended to the inflectional base, with no modification of the stem. Usually the pada stem is used for consonant-stem adjectives, but those in a simple -n sometimes retain it.

• priyatara-, priyatama- from priya-;
• vṛṣatara-, vṛṣatama- from vṛṣan-, but vṛṣantama- is also attested.

Numerals

The numbers from one to ten are:

1. eka (एक)
2. dva (द्व)
3. trayas (त्रि)
4. catur (चतुर्)
5. pañcha (पञ्च)
6. ṣaṣ (षष्)
7. sapta (सप्त)
8. aṣṭa (अष्ट)
9. nava (नव)
10. daśa (दश)

The numbers one through four are declined. Eka is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. Dva appears only in the dual. Tri and catur are declined irregularly.

See also

• Sanskrit pronouns and determiners

Notes

1. W. D. Whitney, Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language and the Older Dialects
2. W. D. Whitney, Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language and the Older Dialects
3. "CSI: Man3". Chass.utoronto.ca. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
4. S.C. Vasu, The Astadhyayi of Pāṇini
5. MacDonell, III.71, p. 33.

References

• Coulson, Michael. Teach Yourself Sanskrit. Oxford: Hodder and Stoughton, 1986. (ISBN 0-340-32389-2)
• Delbrück, B. Altindische Tempuslehre (1876)
• Goldman, Robert P., and Sally J. Sutherland Goldman. Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language. Berkeley: Center for South Asian Studies, 2004. (ISBN 0-944613-40-3)
• Macdonell, A. A. A Sanskrit Grammar for Students. London: Oxford UP, 1927. (ISBN 81-246-0094-5)
• Wackernagel, Debrunner, Altindische Grammatik, Göttingen.
  • vol. I. phonology Jacob Wackernagel (1896)
  • vol. II.1. introduction to morphology, nominal composition, Wackernagel (1905)
  • vol. II.2. nominal suffixes, J. Wackernagel and Albert Debrunner (1954)
  • vol. III. nominal inflection, numerals, pronouns, Wackernagel and Debrunner (1930)
• Whitney, W. D., Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language and the Older Dialects
• W. D. Whitney, The Roots, Verb-Forms and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language (A Supplement to His Sanskrit Grammar)