Stock market index

A stock index, or stock market index, is an index that measures a stock market, or a subset of the stock market, that helps investors compare current price levels with past prices to calculate market performance.[1] It is computed from the prices of selected stocks (typically a weighted arithmetic mean).

A comparison of three major U.S. stock indices: the NASDAQ Composite, Dow Jones Industrial Average, and S&P 500 Index. All three have the same height at March 2007. The NASDAQ spiked during the dot-com bubble in the late 1990s, a result of the large number of technology companies on that index.

Two of the primary criteria of an index are that it is investable and transparent:[2] The method of its construction are specified. Investors can invest in a stock market index by buying an index fund, which are structured as either a mutual fund or an exchange-traded fund, and "track" an index. The difference between an index fund's performance and the index, if any, is called tracking error. For a list of major stock market indices, see List of stock market indices.

Types of indices by weighting method

Stock market indices could be segmented by their index weight methodology, or the rules on how stocks are allocated in the index, independent of its stock coverage. For example, the S&P 500 and the S&P 500 Equal Weight both covers the same group of stocks, but S&P 500 is weighted by market capitalization and S&P 500 Equal Weight is an equal weight index. Below is sample of common index weighting methods. In practice, many indices will impose constraints, such as concentration limits, on these rules.[3]

Market-Capitalization Weighting based indices weight constituent stocks by its market capitalization (often shortened to "market-cap"), or its stock price by its number of shares outstanding, divided by the total market capitalization of all the constituents in the index. Under Capital Asset Pricing Model, the market-cap weighted market portfolio, which could be approximated with the market-cap weighted equity index portfolio, is mean-variance efficient, meaning that it produces the highest return for a given level of risk. Tracking portfolios of the market-cap weighted equity index could also be mean-variance efficient under the right assumptions, and they could be attractive investment portfolios. A market-cap weighted index can also be thought of as a liquidity-weighted index since the largest-cap stocks tend to have the highest liquidity and the greatest capacity to handle investor flows; portfolios with such stocks could have very high investment capacity.[4]

Free-float adjusted Market-Capitalization Weighting based indices adjust market-cap index weights by each constituent's shares outstanding for closely or strategically held shares that are not generally available to the public market. Such shares may be held by governments, affiliated companies, founders, and employees. Foreign ownership limits imposed by government regulation could also be subject to free-float adjustments. These adjustments inform investors of potential liquidity issues from these holdings that are not apparent from the raw number of a stock's shares outstanding. Free-float adjustments are complex undertakings, and different index providers have different free-float adjustment methods, which could sometimes produce different results.[5]

Price Weighting based indices weight constituent stocks by its price per share divided by the sum of all share prices in the index. A price-weighted index can be thought of as a portfolio with one share of each constituent stock. However, a stock split for any constituent stock of the index would cause the weight in the index of the stock that split to decrease, even in the absence of any meaningful change in the fundamentals of that stock. This feature makes price-weighted indices unattractive as benchmarks for passive investment strategies and portfolio managers. Nonetheless, many price-weighted indices, such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average and the Nikkei 225, are followed widely as visible indicators of day-to-day market movements.[6]

Equal Weighting based indices give each constituent stocks weights of 1/n, where n represents the number of stocks in the index. This method produces the least-concentrated portfolios. Equal weighting of stocks in an index is considered a naive strategy because it does not show preference towards any single stock. Zeng and Luo (2013) notes that broad market equally weighted indices are factor-indifferent and randomizes factor mispricing. Equal weight stock indices tends to overweight small-cap stocks and to underweight large-cap stocks compared to a market-cap weighted index. These biases tend to give equal weight stock indices higher volatility and lower liquidity than market-cap weight indices.[7][8][9] For example, the Barron's 400 Index assigns an equal value of 0.25% to each of the 400 stocks included in the index, which together add up to the 100% whole.[10]

Fundamental Factor Weighting based indices, or Fundamentally based indexes, weight constituent stocks based on stock fundamental factors rather stock financial market data. Fundamental factors could include sales, income, dividends, and other factors analyzed in fundamental analysis. Similar to fundamental analysis, fundamental weighting assumes that stock market prices will converge to an intrinsic price implied by fundamental attributes. Certain fundamental factors are also used in generic factor weighting indices.[11]

Factor Weighting based indices weight constituent stocks based on market risk factors of stocks as measured in the context of factor models, such as the Fama–French three-factor model. These indices Common factors include Growth, Value, Size, Yield, Momentum, Quality, and Volatility. Passive factor investing strategies are sometimes known as "smart beta" strategies. Investors could use factor investment strategies or portfolios to complement a market-cap weighted indexed portfolio by tilting or changing their portfolio exposure to certain factors.[12]

Volatility Weighting based indices weight constituent stocks by the inverse of their relative price volatility. Price volatility is defined differently by each index provider, but two common methods include the standard deviation of the past 252 trading days (approximately one calendar year), and the weekly standard deviation of price returns for the past 156 weeks (approximately three calendar years).[13]

Minimum Variance Weighting based indices weight constituent stocks using a mean-variance optimization process. In a volatility weighted indices, highly volatile stocks are given less weight in the index, while in a minimum variance weighting index, highly volatile stocks that are negatively correlated with the rest of the index can be given relatively larger weights than they would be given in the volatility weighted index.[14]

Ethical stock market indices

Several indices are based on ethical investing, and include only companies that meet certain ecological or social criteria, such as the Calvert Social Index, Domini 400 Social Index, FTSE4Good Index, Dow Jones Sustainability Index, STOXX Global ESG Leaders Index, several Standard Ethics Aei indices, and the Wilderhill Clean Energy Index.[15] Other ethical stock market indices may be based on diversity weighting (Fernholz, Garvy, and Hannon 1998). In 2010, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation announced the initiation of a stock index that complies with Sharia's ban on alcohol, tobacco and gambling.[16]

Critics of such initiatives argue that many firms satisfy mechanical "ethical criteria", e.g. regarding board composition or hiring practices, but fail to perform ethically with respect to shareholders, e.g. Enron. Indeed, the seeming "seal of approval" of an ethical index may put investors more at ease, enabling scams. One response to these criticisms is that trust in the corporate management, index criteria, fund or index manager, and securities regulator, can never be replaced by mechanical means, so "market transparency" and "disclosure" are the only long-term-effective paths to fair markets. From a financial perspective, it is not obvious whether ethical indices or ethical funds will out-perform their more conventional counterparts. Theory might suggest that returns would be lower since the investible universe is artificially reduced and with it portfolio efficiency. On the other hand, companies with good social performances might be better run, have more committed workers and customers, and be less likely to suffer reputation damage from incidents (oil spillages, industrial tribunals, etc.) and this might result in lower share price volatility.[17] The empirical evidence on the performance of ethical funds and of ethical firms versus their mainstream comparators is very mixed for both stock[18][19] and debt markets.[20]

Types of indices by coverage

Stock market indices may be classified and segmented by the index coverage set of stocks. The coverage of an index is the underlying group of stocks, typically grouped together with some rationale from their underlying economics or underlying investor demand, that the index is trying to represent or track. For example, a 'world' or 'global' stock market index — such as the MSCI World or the S&P Global 100 — includes stocks from all over the world, and satisfies investor demand for an index for broad global stocks. Regional indices that make up the MSCI World index, such as the MSCI Emerging Markets index, includes stocks from countries with a similar level of economic development, which satisfies the investor demand for an index for emerging market stocks that may face similar economic fundamentals. The coverage of a stock market index is independent from the weighting method. For example, the S&P 500 market-cap weighted index covers the 500 largest stocks from the S&P Total Market Index, but an equally weighted S&P 500 index is also available with the same coverage.

Country Coverage indices represents the performance of the stock market of a given nation—and by proxy, reflects investor sentiment on the state of its economy. The most regularly quoted market indices are national indices composed of the stocks of large companies listed on a nation's largest stock exchanges, such as the S&P 500 Index in the United States, the Nikkei 225 in Japan, the NIFTY 50 in India, and the FTSE 100 in the United Kingdom.

Regional Coverage indices represents the performance of the stock market of a given geographical region. Some examples of these indices are the FTSE Developed Europe Index, and the FTSE Developed Asia Pacific Index.

Global Coverage indices represents the performance of the global stock market. The FTSE Global Equity Index Series includes over 16,000 companies.[21]

Exchange-based Coverage indices may be based on exchange, such as the NASDAQ-100 or groups of exchanges, such as the Euronext 100 or OMX Nordic 40.

Sector-based coverage indices track the performance of specific sectors of the market. Some examples include the Wilshire US REIT Index which tracks more than 80 real estate investment trusts and the NASDAQ Biotechnology Index which consists of approximately 200 firms in the biotechnology industry.

Other indices may track companies of a certain size, a certain type of management, or more specialized criteria such as in fundamentally based indexes.

Presentation of index returns

Some indices, such as the S&P 500 Index, have returns shown calculated with different methods.[22] These versions can differ based on how the index components are weighted and on how dividends are accounted. For example, there are three versions of the S&P 500 Index: price return, which only considers the price of the components, total return, which accounts for dividend reinvestment, and net total return, which accounts for dividend reinvestment after the deduction of a withholding tax.[23]

The Wilshire 4500 and Wilshire 5000 indices have five versions each: full capitalization total return, full capitalization price, float-adjusted total return, float-adjusted price, and equal weight. The difference between the full capitalization, float-adjusted, and equal weight versions is in how index components are weighted.[24][25]

Criticism of capitalization-weighting

One argument for capitalization weighting is that investors must, in aggregate, hold a capitalization-weighted portfolio anyway. This then gives the average return for all investors; if some investors do worse, other investors must do better (excluding costs).[26]

Investors use theories such as modern portfolio theory to determine allocations. This considers risk and return and does not consider weights relative to the entire market. This may result in overweighting assets such as value or small-cap stocks, if they are believed to have a better return for risk profile. These investors believe that they can get a better result because other investors are not very good. The capital asset pricing model says that all investors are highly intelligent, and it is impossible to do better than the market portfolio, the capitalization-weighted portfolio of all assets. However, empirical tests conclude that market indices are not efficient. This can be explained by the fact that these indices do not include all assets or by the fact that the theory does not hold. The practical conclusion is that using capitalization-weighted portfolios is not necessarily the optimal method.

As a consequence, capitalization-weighting has been subject to severe criticism (see e.g. Haugen and Baker 1991, Amenc, Goltz, and Le Sourd 2006, or Hsu 2006), pointing out that the mechanics of capitalization-weighting lead to trend following strategies that provide an inefficient risk-return trade-off.

Indices and passive investment management

Passive management is an investing strategy involving investing in index funds, which are structured as mutual funds or exchange-traded funds that track market indices.[27] The SPIVA (S&P Indices vs. Active) annual "U.S. Scorecard", which measures the performance of indices versus actively managed mutual funds, finds the vast majority of active management mutual funds underperform their benchmarks, such as the S&P 500 Index, after fees.[28][29] Since index funds attempt to replicate the holdings of an index, they eliminate the need for — and thus many costs of — the research entailed in active management, and have a lower churn rate (the turnover of securities, which can result in transaction costs and capital gains taxes).

Unlike a mutual fund, which is priced daily, an exchange-traded fund is priced continuously, is optionable, and can be sold short.[30]

See also

• Index of accounting articles
• Index of economics articles
• Index of management articles
• List of stock exchanges
• List of stock market indices
• Outline of accounting
• Outline of marketing

References

1. Caplinger, Dan (January 18, 2020). "What Is a Stock Market Index?". The Motley Fool.
2. Lo, Andrew W. (2016). "What Is an Index?". Journal of Portfolio Management. 42 (2): 21–36. doi:10.3905/jpm.2016.42.2.021.
3. Smith, David M.; Yousif, Kevin K., Passive Equity Investing, CFA Institute, p. 14
4. Smith, David M.; Yousif, Kevin K., Passive Equity Investing, CFA Institute, p. 7
5. Smith, David M.; Yousif, Kevin K., Passive Equity Investing, CFA Institute, p. 7
6. Smith, David M.; Yousif, Kevin K., Passive Equity Investing, CFA Institute, p. 7
7. Smith, David M.; Yousif, Kevin K., Passive Equity Investing, CFA Institute, p. 7-8
8. Edwards, Tim; Lazzara, Craig J. (May 2014). "Equal-Weight Benchmarking: Raising the Monkey Bars" (PDF). S&P Global.
9. "Practice Essentials - Equal Weight Indexing" (PDF). S&P Dow Jones Indices.
10. Fabian, David (November 14, 2014). "Checking In On Equal-Weight ETFs This Year". Benzinga.
11. Smith, David M.; Yousif, Kevin K., Passive Equity Investing, CFA Institute, p. 8
12. Smith, David M.; Yousif, Kevin K., Passive Equity Investing, CFA Institute, p. 11-13
13. Smith, David M.; Yousif, Kevin K., Passive Equity Investing, CFA Institute, p. 14
14. Smith, David M.; Yousif, Kevin K., Passive Equity Investing, CFA Institute, p. 14
15. Divine, John (February 15, 2019). "7 of the Best Socially Responsible Funds". U.S. News & World Report.
16. Haris, Anwar (November 25, 2010). "Muslim-Majority Nations Plan Stock Index to Spur Trade: Islamic Finance". Bloomberg L.P.
17. Oikonomou, Ioannis; Brooks, Chris; Pavelin, Stephen (2012). "The impact of corporate social performance on financial risk and utility: a longitudinal analysis" (PDF). Financial Management. 41 (2): 483–515. doi:10.1111/j.1755-053X.2012.01190.x. ISSN 1755-053X.
18. Brammer, Stephen; Brooks, Chris; Pavelin, Stephen (2009). "The stock performance of America's 100 best corporate citizens" (PDF). The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance. 49 (3): 1065–1080. doi:10.1016/j.qref.2009.04.001. ISSN 1062-9769.
19. Brammer, Stephen; Brooks, Chris; Pavelin, Stephen (2006). "Corporate social performance and stock returns: UK evidence from disaggregate measures" (PDF). Financial Management. 35 (3): 97–116. doi:10.1111/j.1755-053X.2006.tb00149.x. ISSN 1755-053X.
20. Oikonomou, Ioannis; Brooks, Chris; Pavelin, Stephen (2014). "The effects of corporate social performance on the cost of corporate debt and credit ratings" (PDF). Financial Review. 49 (1): 49–75. doi:10.1111/fire.12025. ISSN 1540-6288.
21. "FTSE Global Equity Index Series (GEIS)". FTSE Russell.
22. "Index Literacy". S&P Dow Jones Indices.
23. "Methodology Matters". S&P Dow Jones Indices.
24. "Indexes". Wilshire Associates.
25. "Dow Jones Wilshire > DJ Wilshire 5000/4500 Indexes > Methodology". Wilshire Associates.
26. Sharpe, William F. (May 2010). "Adaptive Asset Allocation Policies". CFA Institute.
27. Schramm, Michael (September 27, 2019). "What Is Passive Investing?". Morningstar, Inc.
28. "SPIVA U.S. Score Card". S&P Dow Jones Indices.
29. THUNE, KENT (July 3, 2019). "Why Index Funds Beat Actively Managed Funds". Dotdash.
30. Chang, Ellen (May 21, 2019). "How to Choose Between ETFs and Mutual Funds". U.S. News & World Report.

• Amenc, N.; Goltz, F.; Le Sourd, V. (2006). Assessing the Quality of Stock Market Indices. EDHEC Publication.
• Arnott, R. D.; Hsu, J.; Moore, P. (2005). "Fundamental Indexation". Financial Analysts Journal. 60 (2): 83–99. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.612.1314. doi:10.2469/faj.v61.n2.2718. JSTOR 4480658.
• Broby, D. P. (2007). A Guide to Equity Index Construction. Risk Books.
• Fernholz, R.; Garvy, R.; Hannon, J. (1998). "Diversity-Weighted Indexing". Journal of Portfolio Management. 24 (2): 74–82. doi:10.3905/jpm.24.2.74.
• Haugen, R. A.; Baker, N. L. (1991). "The Efficient Market Inefficiency of Capitalization-Weighted Stock Portfolios". Journal of Portfolio Management. 17 (3): 35–40. doi:10.3905/jpm.1991.409335.
• Hsu, Jason (2006). "Cap-Weighted Portfolios are Sub-optimal Portfolios". Journal of Investment Management. 4 (3): 1–10.

External links

Media related to Stock market indexes at Wikimedia Commons

• Stock Index Profile at Wikinvest