Pakawan languages
The Pakawan languages were a small language family spoken in what is today northern Mexico and southern Texas. All Pakawan languages are today extinct.
| Pakawan | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Rio Grande Valley |
| Linguistic classification | Hokan ?
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Glottolog | None |
Classification
Five clear Pakawan languages are attested: Coahuilteco, Cotoname, Comecrudo, Garza and Mamulique. The first three were first proposed to be related by John Wesley Powell in 1891, in a grouping then called Coahuiltecan. Goddard (1979) groups the latter three in a Comecrudan family while considering the others language isolates. The current composition and the present name "Pakawan" are due to Manaster Ramer (1996).
The term Coahuiltecan languages today refers to a slightly expanded and less securely established grouping. Most Pakawan languages have at times been included also in the much larger and highly hypothetical Hokan "stock".
Common vocabulary
The following word comparisons are given by Manaster Ramer (1996):
| Coahuilteco | Comecrudo | Cotoname | Karankawa | tentative reconstruction |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| axtē 'two' | ale-kueten 'two' | #al-, #axte 'two' | ||
| '' | #ali 'ear' | |||
| uxualʼ 'heaven' | apel 'sky, heaven, clouds' | #apel' 'sky' | ||
| '' | #axə 'juice, water' | |||
| '' | #dem 'salt' | |||
| xāi 'to be extinguished, to come to an end' | kai 'to eat' | #kai 'to eat up, consume' | ||
| axām 'not' | kam 'no' | #kam 'no(t)' | ||
| hām 'to eat' | kam 'to eat' | hahame, xaxame 'to eat; food' | #kam 'to eat, drink' | |
| '' | #kamkam 'body of water' | |||
| xasal 'heart' | kayasel 'heart' | #kayasel 'heart' | ||
| pe=kĕwek 'low (of water)' | xuăxe 'low (of water)' | #k(a)waka 'low (of water)' | ||
| kemen 'vein' | kemma 'bow' | #keme(n) 'sinew, vein' | ||
| pa=kna(x) 'high, big' | kenex 'good' | #kenex 'good, big' | ||
| '' | #ketekawi 'sun, star' | |||
| talōm 'fire' | klewem, klewen, len | #klewem 'fire' | ||
| '' | #knem 'breast' | |||
| kuas | kial | #kual 'blood' | ||
| kuan 'to go' | kio; kie 'to go'; 'to come' | #kuV- 'to go, come' | ||
| gnax, na 'man' | xuainaxe 'man' | #kwainaxə 'man' | ||
| '' | kuak 'reed, cane; arrow' | ka-u, kau 'reed; arrow' | #kwak 'reed' | |
| pe=kla 'to suck' | huäxle 'to suck' | #kwa(x/k?)la 'to suck' | ||
| kʼāu 'to marry' | kuau, kwai 'married' | #k'aw 'to marry' | ||
| '' | wax 'belly' | kox 'belly' | #k'wax 'belly' | |
| tšum 'night, evening' | lesum, lesom 'evening' | #lesum 'evening' | ||
| '' | #lel 'buttock, leg' | |||
| '' | #lot 'arm' | |||
| '' | #makə 'to give' | |||
| masõ 'to give up, abandon, desert, leave' | mel, pa=mesai 'to fall' | #maɬ- 'to fall' | ||
| māux 'hand' | mapi 'hand' | miapa 'wing' | #mapi 'hand' | |
| pa=msol, pa=msul 'red' | msae 'red' | #msa'ol 'red' | ||
| el-pau 'to kneel down, sink or sit down' | pawe 'to sit' | #pawə 'to sit' | ||
| pilʼ 'one' | pe-kueten 'one' | #pil' 'one' | ||
| ānua 'moon' | kan 'moon' | #q'an 'moon' | ||
| '' | #sayex 'to want' | |||
| sel 'straw' | suau 'grass, tobacco; to smoke' | #sel 'grass' | ||
| pa=kahuai, -kawai 'to write, paint; paper' | thawe 'painted (on body, face)' | #tkawai 'paint' | ||
| tʼāhaka, tʼāxakan 'what' | tete 'how, what, why' | *tit 'what' | #t'ete- 'what' | |
| tʼil 'day' | al 'sun' | o 'sun' | #t'al 'sun' | |
| xop 'far, distant' | huanpa, xuanpa 'far' | #xwanpa 'far' | ||
| '' | #ya'ex 'nose' | |||
| yēwal 'to bewitch' | yamel, yamis 'devil' | #yameɬ 'evil spirit' | ||
| na- 'my, me' | na 'I' | na 'I' | ||
| mai- '2PS subject prefix' | emnã 'you (sg.)' | *men 'you (sg.)' | ||
| pamawau | '' | |||
| la-ak 'goose' | krak 'goose' | |||
| kol 'crane' | karakor 'crane' | |||
| ketuau 'dog' | kowá-u 'dog' | |||
| kiextuén 'rabbit' | kiáx̣nem 'rabbit' | |||
| pa=kwessom 'orphan' | kuwosam 'small, little; boy, girl' | |||
| malāux 'male sexual organs' | melkuai 'female sexual organs' | |||
| xūm 'to die' | kamau 'to kill' | |||
| tzin 'I' | yen 'I' | |||
| tzōtz 'chest' | yeso knem 'to nurse' | |||
| *tšei 'to hear' | ye 'to hear' | |||
| tilʼ 'posterior, anus' | alel; (al)el 'leg'; 'buttocks, backsides, bottom' | |||
| tām 'woman's breast' | dom 'breast' | |||
| mās 'to look, observe' | max, ma, mahe 'to see' | |||
| kuāx(ai) 'to suffer' | kayau 'ache, sore' | |||
| '' | '' |
The following sound changes and correspondences should be noted:
- Vocalization of word-final *l in Cotoname: 'sun', 'straw', red'
- Lenition of *p to /xw/ in Coahuilteco between vowels: #apel', #mapi
- Syncope of
- Apocope of final e (perhaps /ə/) in Comecrudo: 'man', 'low [water]', 'to kneel'.
- /k/, /kw/ in other languages correspond to /x/, /xw/ in Cotoname, when before /a/ ('man', 'low [water]', 'to eat', 'to suck', 'to write'), as well as in Coahuilteco, when before any low vowel (__examples).
- /kiV/ in Comecrudo corresponds to /kuV/ in Coahuilteco: 'blood', 'to go'
- s ~ l (perhaps indicating a lateral fricative /ɬ/) in Comecrudo corresponds to s in Coahuilteco: Comecrudo 'blood', 'devil', 'to fall'.
- Initial y in Comecrudo corresponds to /ts/ in Coahuilteco: I, chest, to hear
Literature
- Manaster Ramer, Alexis. 1996. Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan. Anthropological Linguistics 38/1, 1–38.
- Sapir, Edward. 1920. The Hokan and Coahuiltecan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1 (4), 280-290.
- Swanton, John R. (1915). Linguistic position of the tribes of southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. American Anthropologist, 17, 17–40.
gollark: ++ping
gollark: ++help
gollark: ```Get out of our way type system! We're going to reinterpret these bits or die trying! Even though this book is all about doing things that are unsafe, I really can't emphasize that you should deeply think about finding Another Way than the operations covered in this section. This is really, truly, the most horribly unsafe thing you can do in Rust. The railguards here are dental floss.```
gollark: _goes off to find rustonomicon_
gollark: https://pastebin.com/S2WeZawLI managed to cause an interesting compile error...
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