Islamophobia in Italy

Islamophobia is characterized by a hatred against the religion of Islam and those perceived to be following the religion, typically fueled by fear and hatred and sustained through the evolving stereotype of the Muslim identity.[1] It has become increasingly common and widespread throughout the world, in particular since the September 11 attacks in the United States, however it existed in society before this.[1] In Europe, there has been an increase in cultural tensions between national majorities and marginalized Muslim countries,[2] as shown by the results of the 2009 elections in the European Parliament with a large vote toward anti-immigration.[3] Within Italy, there is a large Islamic presence of approximately 1.25 million people,[2] stemming from the widespread migration and settlement that began in the 1970s, in particular from North Africa. The Islamic population of Italy increasingly faces challenges when it comes to their position in society, with the increasing cultural hostility that stems from the growing presence of Islamophobia. Islamophobia has been present within Italy for many years; for example, in the 1920s, Muslims were not permitted to settle in the country due to their religion being viewed as "against common morality."[4] The intensity of Islamophobia in Italy is enhanced by the historical religious structure of the state – which is heavily based on the Catholic Church.[5]

The Mosque of Rome, one of the many mosques in Italy

Definition

There is no official legal or social definition for Islamophobia;[3] however, it can be defined as a "form of racial prejudice",[6] especially as a political force, and "manifests as a distorted simplification of Islam and the Muslim world".[7] Almost a quarter of the world's population identify as Muslim, making it an extremely prevalent religion. Furthermore, Islamophobia often overlaps with other forms of discrimination and religious bias, making it difficult to recognize.[3]

Islam in Italy

Prevalence

There was a large Muslim presence in Italy from 827 until the 12th century. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center projection and Brookings, there are approximately 1,400,000 Muslims in Italy, about 2.5% of the Italian population.[8]

Theories

There are multiple sources of anti-Islamic prejudices, with reasoning often being based on "race, ethnicity, cultural differences, socio-economics".[1] Despite the September 11 attacks on the United States immensely enhancing and propelling the prevalence of Islamophobia, the sentiments of anti-Islamic thought have existed well prior to this, in part due to the perceived lack of integration of Muslim migrants in Europe.[2] A discussion in contemporary literature focuses on the concept that Islamophobia is becoming institutionalized, rather than individuals acting on their own.[7]

There is yet another source of anti-Islamic racism, which stems from an Islamophobic intolerance by Italian Catholics who espouse Christianity. The Cardinal of Bologna, Giacomo Biffi, also claimed that Europe should go back to its Christian origins in order to resist the “ideological assault of Islam."[4] Further, Biffi states that he considers Muslims as a threat to Italian cultural identity and as posing legal and social problems.

Contributions

Islamophobia has existed around the world for an extensive time as well as within Italy; however, it has become increasingly prevalent since the September 11 Attacks. The new global hegemony structure of the 21st century has allowed for the expansion of anti-Islamic discourse, with "Muslim populations finding themselves increasingly encoded as the new 'evil other'".[9] One of the main contributing forces to the increase in Islamophobia is the media, through the multiple platforms that present powerful channels for information and ultimately opinions to spread and cultivate in society.[3] The media "bear a heavy responsibility in their representation of minority groups."[3] Due to the reaction that prevailed following the September 11 attacks, a significant shift was seen, with prejudices towards Islam becoming more common. In a world of free media, where freedom of speech is a defining factor, the circulation of misinformed and prejudiced[5] information is inevitable. This has ultimately allowed for the spread of Islamophobia. The media's use of ambiguous and duplicitous words and ways allow for public speculation and the spread of often misinformed and prejudiced sentiments towards Muslim people. This was demonstrated with the media reports on the various terrorist attacks in Europe since September 11, including those in Nice and Berlin, where the term "Islamic terrorism"[10] was used, leading to an increase in prejudice toward the religion.

Social media

In particular, social media has provided a significant platform for the expression of anti-Islamic sentiments, providing a powerful outlet for racist and xenophobic hate messages. The Islamophobia in Europe report[10] identifies that in 2014, there was a total of 347 recorded cases of racist expressions on various social networks reported on the UNAR (National Office Against Racial Discrimination).

Legislations

Current legislations that are in place in Italy are contributing to the anti-Islamic sentiments, particularly those that make the migrant position in the country precarious. This includes the ‘Bossi-Fini’ law of 2002 on immigration which introduced criminal sanctions for persons who are caught illegally entering the country,[11] which created a sense of hostility against migrants. A further development of this law in 2005 which improved the instruments to fight the threat of terrorist organisations.[3] In 2009, the Italian Parliament passed further laws on the topic of immigration, including the Law No. 94/2009. on "provisions relating to public safety."[3] The combination of these laws among others became part of a "security package," part of which criminalises illegal immigration.[3] Such laws have incited concerns among institutional and civil society actors, with The Council of Europe stating that "concern about security cannot be the only basis for immigration policy."[3] Such laws have also sparked questions about the welfare of immigrants within Italy.[12]

Surrounding attacks

Much of the recent Anti-Islamic sentiments recognized come as a result of attacks perpetrated by extremist Islamist groups, particularly in many European countries in the last 10 years. The Islamic extremist group ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) or ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant),[13] is a Salafi Jihadist militant group that has taken responsibility for many of the recent terror attacks around the world. Although not many attacks have occurred within Italy, there have been many attacks in surrounding countries which is cause for concern.

Charlie Hebdo shootings (7 January 2015)

The attack on a French satirical journal that resulted in 12 killings,[14] "opened the season of terror in Europe".[14] The majority of the victims were members of the magazine, known for satirising politicians, religion and personalities,[15] and was at the time the deadliest attack in France in the preceding two decades. The particular cartoons published by the magazine of Prophet Mohammed were thought to be at the centre of the reasoning behind the attack.[15]

November attacks France 2015

The November attacks that occurred throughout France were regarded as the "bloodiest and more concerted attacks to a European metropolis in the last 10 years".[14] The first of the attacks occurred outside the Stade de France in Saint-Denis where three suicide bombers waited outside and killed four people. This was followed with multiple shootings at restaurants around Paris, killing 15 more people. The deadliest of the attacks occurred at the Bataclan Theatre, where three shooters opened fire during a concert and killed 90 people.[16]

Brussels attacks (22 March 2016)

A widespread terrorist attack occurred in Brussels, Belgium, with three coordinated suicide bombings. In total, thirty-two civilians were killed, and over 300 injured.[17]

Bastille Day killings (14 July 2016)

The Bastille Day killings occurred in Nice, resulting in the death of 87 people after a cargo truck deliberately drove into crowds on the Promenade des Anglais.[14]

Milan Stabbing (17 September 2019)

A soldier was stabbed in the Milan Central Station by a man who screamed “Allahu akbar” as he was immobilized by others.[18]

Responses

Reports of the multiple terror incidents led to widespread exposure as well as social media playing a role in the formation of anti-Islamic sentiments as a result.[14]

Incidences

There are varying estimates of the presence of anti-Islamic sentiments within Italy. Anti-Islamic incidences have occurred within and around Italy for decades, however their severity and frequency has significantly increased since September 11, 2001. The psychosis amongst the general population of the possibility of a terrorist attack is becoming increasingly high in Italy and Europe in general,[19] due in part to the many incidences related to Islamic terrorism in surrounding countries, including the attacks in Nice, Rouen, Reutlingen and Berlin. Despite these attacks being perpetrated by a small minority of extremists, it has led to a widespread consensus and prejudice of Islam as a violent religion, and has contributed to various anti-Islamic incidences.

Within Italy

Various anti-Islamic incidences have occurred within Italy in recent years, both of violent and non-violent nature. This includes various forms of vandalism and threats throughout the country.[10]

Within the employment industry, incidences of anti-Islam have been reported. Under legislation, recruitment in the public sector requires the possession of Italian or EU citizenship.[10] Whereas, in the private sector, a lack of adequate education amongst the immigrant population has led to a low percentage of immigrants in high-skilled jobs.[10]

Within Italian politics, anti-Islam sentiments have been identified as more apparent since September 11, particular from right-wing political alignments.[10]

Specific incidences

A few incidences have occurred in Italy that could be considered Islamophobic

• October 24, 2007 – the Alif Baa Islamic Centre in Abbiategrasso was firebombed. No major damage or injuries were reported. Two similar firebombing occurred on later dates in the same centre.[20]
• August 5, 2007 – a mosque in Segrate was attacked and an imam's car was damaged.[20]
• June 2008 – two handmade bombs were thrown at the Islamic Centre in Milan.[20]
• March 2018 – the Northern League’s candidate for president of the Lombardy region of Italy stated that there is a “risk that the white race disappears and is replaced by migrants.”[21]

Responses

Negative

The Lega Nord, which is a right-wing political party in Italy, has increasingly been linked to anti-Islamic discourse since 2001,[19] introducing multiple "federal reforms and immigration law and order."[22] Multiple significant Lega representatives have been involved in a number of infamous incidents which prompted protests by the Italian public. In 2016, a controversial legislative issue occurred with the adoption of a regional law that regulated the construction of new placed of worship, including mosques. This is a clear breach of the fundamental right of religious freedom which is enshrined in the Italian constitution, and was dubbed the "Anti-Mosque Law." Furthermore the respinimenti measure taken by the Lega Nord government rejected multiple boats of immigrants mainly from North-Africa.[22] Furthermore, the ban of burkinis on some beaches in France was discussed by many leaders in Italy as a regulation that should be introduced.

An Italian political scientist known as Giovanni Santori, wrote in his book that Muslim immigrants are an “invasive” presence who will bring “disorder and desegregation”[23]. His writing had an impact on many people in Italy who seem to agree with is statements that Islamophobia stems from a "cultural-religious"[4] refusal.

On September 28, 2001, a week after the September 11 attacks, the Corriere della Sera, an Italian newspaper, published an article titled "Rage and Pride." In this article, the author accuses the West of being "too soft" on Islam and Muslim immigrants.[24]

Positive

There have been multiple initiatives undertaken by the Italian government and other institutions in an attempt to render the anti-Islamic sentiments that are present in society. This includes suggestions presented by government representatives to introduce practices and measures that support and promote equality amongst the population and a reduction in prejudicial attitudes towards the Muslim population.

Measures taken to suppress the spread of Islamophobia through the media in particular in social media platforms are shown through the work of the UNARs Media and Social Network Observatory on hate speech.[10]

A new project has been undertaken to combat Islamophobia called "Stop Islamophobia." This project is taking place from November 2018-October 2020 and is working to address the root causes of Islamophobia within in Italy and Europe. [25]

Statistics

Italians who responded to the Ipsos Perils of Perception Survey of 2016, were presented with the statement: "All further migration from mainly Muslim countries should be stopped’". As the report reveals, the majorities in all but two of the ten states agreed to this statement with 51% agreement in Italy[26].

The Eurobarometer on discrimination addresses this topic showing that 39% of Italian respondents say they would be uncomfortable working with a Muslim person. In addition, only 41% of Italian respondents said that they would feel at ease if one of their children was in a love relationship with a Muslim person[27].   

References

1. Sadek, Noha (2017). "Islamophobia, Shame and the Collapse of Muslim Identities". International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies. 14 (3): 200–221. doi:10.1002/aps.1534.
2. Triandafyllidou, Anna (2010). Muslims in 21st century Europe structural and cultural perspectives. New York: Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge. ISBN 9780415497091.
3. Pfostl, E (2001). "Between Fear and Integration: Islamophobia in Contemporary Italy". European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online. 8: 1
4. Schmidt di Friedberg, Ottavia; Blion, Reynald (2000). "Du Sénégal à New York, quel avenir pour la confrérie mouride ? un entretien entre Ottavia Schmidt di Friedberg et Reynald Blion". Hommes et Migrations. 1224 (1): 36–45. doi:10.3406/homig.2000.3478. ISSN 1142-852X.
5. Cere, R (2002). "Islamophobia and the media in Italy". Feminist Media Studies. 2: 133–136. doi:10.1080/146807702753745392.
6. Padovan & Alietti, D & A. "The Racialization of Public Discourse: Antisemitism and Islamophobia in Italian Society". European Societies. 14: 186–202. doi:10.1080/14616696.2012.676456.
7. Elman, Miriam (2019). "Islamophobia". Israel Studies. 24 (2): 144–156. doi:10.2979/israelstudies.24.2.12.
8. Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project. (2011). The future of the global Muslim population : projections for 2010-2030. Pew Research Center Forum on Religion & Public Life. OCLC 698477481.
9. Poynting & Mason, Scott & Victoria. "The Resistible Rise of Islamophobia: Anti-Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001". Journal of Sociology. 43 (1): 61–86. doi:10.1177/1440783307073935.
10. Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research 2016, European Islamophobia Report 2016, Bayrakli, E & Hafez, F (eds), viewed 28 March 2019,  https://www.islamophobiaeurope.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ITALY.pdf.
11. Frisina, A (2010). "Young Muslims Everyday Tactics and Strategies: Resisting Islamophbia, Negotiating Italianness, Becoming Citizens". Journal of Intercultural Studies. 31: 557–572.
12. Cento Bull, Anna (2010). "Addressing contradictory needs: the Lega Nord and Italian immigration policy". Patterns of Prejudice. 44 (5): 411–431. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2010.527441.
13. Tharoor, Ishaan (18 June 2014). "ISIS or ISIL? The debate over what to call Iraq's terror group". The Washington Post. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
14. Romania & Tozzo, V & S (2017). "Terrorism as Ritual Process and Cultural Trauma: a Performative Analysis of ISIS's Attacks in Europe". Italian Sociological Review. 7: 239–261.
15. Połońska-Kimunguyi, Eva (2016). "Terrorism discourse on French international broadcasting: France 24 and the case of Charlie Hebdo attacks in Paris" (PDF). European Journal of Communication. 31 (5): 568–583. doi:10.1177/0267323116669453.
16. Rawlinson, Kevin (13 November 2015). "Fatal shootings and explosion reported in Paris – live". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 November 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2019.
17. Lasoen, Kenneth (2017). "Indications and warning in Belgium. Brussels is not Delphi". Journal of Strategic Studies. 40 (7): 927–962.
18. [e-mail] (20 September 2019). "A Stabbing Attack in Milan and the Terrorist Threat to Italy". ISPI (in Italian). Retrieved 11 November 2019.
19. Hans-Georg Betz & Susi Meret (2009) Revisiting Lepanto: the political mobilization against Islam in contemporary Western Europe, Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 43, no 3, pp. 313–334.
20. Stahnke, Tad; LeGendre, Paul; Grekov, Innokenty; McClintock, Michael (2008), "Violence Against Muslims: 2008 Hate Crime Survey" (PDF), Human Rights First, New York City, United States, retrieved 23 March 2017
21. "European Islamophobia Report 2017 | #EIR2017". SETA. 2 April 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
22. Albertazzi &McDonnell, Daniele & Duncan (2010). "The Lega Nord Back in Government". West European Politics. 33 (6): 1318–1340. doi:10.1080/01402382.2010.508911.
23. Schmidt di Friedberg, Ottavia; Blion, Reynald (2000). "Du Sénégal à New York, quel avenir pour la confrérie mouride ? un entretien entre Ottavia Schmidt di Friedberg et Reynald Blion". Hommes et Migrations. 1224 (1): 36–45. doi:10.3406/homig.2000.3478. ISSN 1142-852X.
24. Cherribi, Sam (23 February 2017), "The Symbolic World of Al Jazeera", Fridays of Rage, Oxford University Press, pp. 43–74, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199337385.003.0002, ISBN 9780199337385
25. "About". Stop Islamophobia. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
26. Bayrakli, Enes. Hafez, Farid. (2017). European islamophobia report 2016. SETA. ISBN 9789752459007. OCLC 989503990.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
27. "European Islamophobia". Retrieved 11 November 2019.