Phalaenopsis

Phalaenopsis /ˌfælɪˈnɒpsɪs/ Blume (1825), commonly known as moth orchids,[2] is a genus of about seventy species of plants in the family Orchidaceae. Orchids in this genus are monopodial epiphytes or lithophytes with long, coarse roots, short, leafy stems and long-lasting, flat flowers arranged in a flowering stem that often branches near the end. Orchids in this genus are native to India, Taiwan, China, Southeast Asia, New Guinea and Australia with the majority in Indonesia and the Philippines.

"Phal" redirects here. For the curry dish, see Phall.

Moth orchids
Phalaenopsis amabilis
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Monocots
Order:	Asparagales
Family:	Orchidaceae
Subfamily:	Epidendroideae
Tribe:	Vandeae
Subtribe:	Aeridinae
Genus:	Phalaenopsis Blume[1]
Type species
Phalaenopsis amabilis Blume (1825)
Synonyms[1]
Polychilos Breda Doritis Lindl. Synadena Raf. Stauroglottis Schauer Polystylus Hasselt ex Hassk. Stauritis Rchb.f. Ornithochilus (Lindl.) Wall. ex Benth. Hygrochilus Pfitzer Kingiella Rolfe nom. illeg. Grafia A.D.Hawkes nom. illeg. Kingidium P.F.Hunt Sedirea Garay & H.R.Sweet Lesliea Seidenf. Nothodoritis Z.H.Tsi Grussia M.Wolff

Description

Orchids in the genus Phalaenopsis are monopodial epiphytic, sometimes lithophytic herbs with long, coarse roots and short leafy stems hidden by overlapping leaf bases. The leaves are usually arranged in two rows, relatively large and leathery, oblong to elliptic and sometimes succulent. A few to many, small to large, long-lasting, flat, often fragrant flowers are arranged on erect to hanging racemes or panicles. The sepals and petals are free from and spread widely apart from each other. The lateral sepals are usually larger than the dorsal sepal and the petals much wider than the sepals. The labellum is joined stiffly to the column and has three lobes. The side lobes are erect and more or less parallel to each other and the middle lobe sometimes has a pair of appendages or antennae.[2][3][4][5][6]

Taxonomy and naming

The genus Phalaenopsis was first formally described in 1825 by Carl Ludwig Blume and the description was published in Bijdragen tot de flora van Nederlandsch Indië.[1][7] The name Phalaenopsis is derived from the Ancient Greek word phalaina (φαλαινα) meaning "a kind of moth"[8]^:535 with the suffix -opsis meaning "having the appearance of" or "like".[8]^:483[9]

The genus name is abbreviated Phal. horticulturally.[10]

Distribution

Species of Phalaenopsis are found from India to southern China, Indochina, Malaysia and from Indonesia to the Philippines and New Guinea. There is a single species endemic to Queensland. The greatest disversity of phalaenopsis occurs in Indonesia and the Philippines.

Species

The following is a list of Phalaenopsis species accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families as at January 2019:

Image	Name	Distribution	Elevation (m)
	Phalaenopsis amabilis (L.) Blume 1825	East Malaysia to Papuasia	0– 600 meters
	Phalaenopsis amboinensis J.J.Smith 1911	Ambon Island, Sulawesi, Papua and New Guinea and Indonesia
	Phalaenopsis aphrodite Rchb.f 1862	Philippine Islands, Sulu Archipelago, and Taiwan, China
	Phalaenopsis appendiculata Carr 1929	Pahang, Malaysia to northeastern Borneo
	Phalaenopsis bastianii O.Gruss & L.Röllke 1991	the Philippines - Luzon, in the Sulu Archipelago
	Phalaenopsis bellina Christenson 1995	Borneo	200 meters and below
	Phalaenopsis braceana (Hook. f.) Christenson 1986	Eastern Himalayas, Bhutan, Myanamar, Thailand, Vietnam, China - Yunnan	1100 – 2100 meters.
	Phalaenopsis buyssoniana Rchb. f. 1888	Indochina, Thailand, and Vietnam
	Phalaenopsis cacharensis (Barbhuiya, B.K.Dutta & Schuit.) Kocyan & Schuit. 2014	India (Cachar, Assam)
	Phalaenopsis celebensis Sweet 1980	Sulawesi
	Phalaenopsis chibae T.Yukawa 1996	Vietnam	400 – 600 meters
	Phalaenopsis cochlearis Holttum 1964	Malaysia and Sarawak, Borneo	450 – 700 meters
	Phalaenopsis corningiana Rchb. f. 1879	Borneo	450 – 610 meters
	Phalaenopsis cornu-cervi (Breda) Blume & Rchb.f. 1860	India, Myanamar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Nicobar Islands, Malaysia, Java, Borneo, Sumatra, and the Philippines	1000 meters and below
	Phalaenopsis deliciosa Rchb. f. 1854	India to SE Asia, Java, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippines	600 meters and below
	Phalaenopsis difformis (Wall. ex Lindl.) Kocyan & Schuit. 2014	Assam India, eastern Himalayas, Nepal, western Himalayas, Myanmar, Thailand, Malayasia, Laos, central and southern China, Vietnam, Borneo and Sumatra	300 – 1600 meters
	Phalaenopsis doweryënsis Garay & Christenson 2001	Sabah	150 meters
	Phalaenopsis equestris [Schauer]Rchb.f 1849	Taiwan - Hsiao Lan Yü to the Philippines	0 – 300 meters.
	Phalaenopsis fasciata Rchb.f 1882	the Philippines
	Phalaenopsis fimbriata J.J. Sm. 1921	Java, Sumatra and Sarawak	790 – 1300 meters.
	Phalaenopsis finleyi Christenson 2011	Thailand and Burma
	Phalaenopsis floresensis Fowlie 1993	island of Flores in Indonesia	150 – 500 meters
	Phalaenopsis fuscata Rchb. f. 1874	Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, to Philippines - Palawan island	0 – 1000 meters
	Phalaenopsis gibbosa H.R. Sweet 1970	Laos and northern Vietnam	0 – 1000 meters
	Phalaenopsis gigantea J.J.Smith 1909	Sabah, Borneo, Java and Sarawak	0 – 400 meters
	Phalaenopsis hieroglyphica [Rchb.f] Sweet 1969	the Philippines - Luzon, Leyte, Samar, Palawan, and Mindanao islands
	Phalaenopsis honghenensis F.Y. Liu 1991	China - Yunnan	2000 meters
	Phalaenopsis inscriptiosinensis Fowlie 1983	Central Sumatra	914 meters and below
	Phalaenopsis japonica (Rchb.f.) Kocyan & Schuit. 2014	W Yunnan, Zhejiang, Japan (Southern areas to Ryukyu Islands), Korea (Jeollanam-do).	600 – 1400 meters
	Phalaenopsis javanica J.J.Sm. 1918	Western Java
	Phalaenopsis kapuasensis Metusala & P.O'Byrne 2017	Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan Province, Indonesia	50 – 200 meters
	Phalaenopsis kunstleri Hook. f. 1890	Myanmar to Malaysia
	Phalaenopsis lindenii Loher 1895	the Philippines - Luzon island	1000 – 1500 meters
	Phalaenopsis lobbii (Rchb. f.) H.R. Sweet 1980	Himalayas, NE India, Bhutan, Sikkim, Myanamar and Vietnam	366 – 1200 meters
	Phalaenopsis lowii Rchb.f 1862	Myanamar, Thailand and Borneo	800 meters.
	Phalaenopsis lueddemanniana Rchb.f 1862	the Philippines	below 100 meters.
	Phalaenopsis luteola (Burb. ex Garay) Christenson & O.Gruss 2001	Northwestern Borneo
	Phalaenopsis maculata Rchb.f 1881	Malaya to Borneo and Sulawesi	0 – 1000 meters
	Phalaenopsis malipoensis Z.J.Liu & S.C.Chen 2005	China - Yunnan
	Phalaenopsis mannii Rchb.f 1871	Indian Himalayas, Assam, Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, Myanamar, southern China and Vietnam	500 – 1500 meters
	Phalaenopsis mariae Burbidge ex Warner & Williams 1883	Northeastern Borneo to the Philippines - Mindanao	600 meters
	Phalaenopsis marriottiana (Rchb.f.) Kocyan & Schuit. 2014	Guangxi China and Myanmar
	Phalaenopsis mentawaiensis O.Gruss 2014	Mentawai Islands of Sumatra
	Phalaenopsis micholitzii Rchb. f. 1874	the Philippines - Mindanao island	400 meters
	Phalaenopsis mirabilis (Seidenf.) Schuit. 2007	Thailand.
	Phalaenopsis modesta J.J. Sm. 1906	Borneo	50 – 900 meters
	Phalaenopsis mysorensis C.J.Saldanha 1974	Mysore, India.
	Phalaenopsis natmataungensis (T.Yukawa, Nob.Tanaka & J.Murata) Dalström & Ormerod 2010	Myanmar	1700 – 1950 meters
	Phalaenopsis pallens [Lindley]Rchb.f 1864	the Philippines - Luzon and Mindanao islands	500 meters
	Phalaenopsis pantherina Rchb. f. 1864	Borneo	0 – 800 meters.
	Phalaenopsis parishii Rchb. f. 1865	eastern Himalayas, Assam India, Myanamar, Thailand and Vietnam	below 500 meters
	Phalaenopsis philippinensis Golamco ex Fowlie & C.Z.Tang 1987	the Philippines - Luzon island	up to 1200 meters
	Phalaenopsis pulcherrima (Lindl.) J.J.Sm. 1933	Assam India, Myanamar, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, Yunnan and Xizang China, Vietnam, Borneo and Sumatra
	Phalaenopsis pulchra (Rchb. f.) H.R. Sweet 1968	the Philippines - Luzon island	100 – 650 meters
	Phalaenopsis reichenbachiana Rchb.f. & Sander 1882	the Philippines - Mindanao island
	Phalaenopsis robinsonii J.J.Sm. 1917	Ambon, Maluku. the Moluccas
	Phalaenopsis rundumensis P.J.Cribb & A.L.Lamb [2012] 2011	Sabah
	Phalaenopsis sanderiana Rchb. f. 1883	the Philippines - Mindanao island
	Phalaenopsis schilleriana Rchb.f 1860	the Philippines - Luzon, Mindoro, and Biliran islands	0 – 450 meters
	Phalaenopsis stobartiana Rchb. f. 1877	China - southeastern Tibet to Guangxi
	Phalaenopsis stuartiana Rchb.f. 1881	the Philippines - Mindanao island	below 300 meters
	Phalaenopsis subparishii (Z.H.Tsi) Kocyan & Schuit. 2014.	N Fujian, N Guangdong, NE Guizhou, SW Hubei, Hunan, NE Sichuan, Zhejiang.	300 – 1100 meters
	Phalaenopsis sumatrana Korth. & Rchb. f. 1860	Indochina, Borneo to Philippines - Palawan island	700 meters
	Phalaenopsis taenialis [Lindl.] E.A Christ. & Pradham 1986	Himalayas, Assam India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, Myanmar, to China - Yunnan	1000 – 2500 meters
	Phalaenopsis tetraspis Rchb.f. 1868	Andaman and Nicobar Islands to northwestern Sumatra	0 meters.
	Phalaenopsis thailandica O.Gruss & Roeth 2009	Thailand
	Phalaenopsis tsii (M.H.Li, Z.J.Liu & S.R.Lan) Hua Deng, Z.J.Liu & Yan Wang 2015	China (Hunan)	1200 – 1850 meters
	Phalaenopsis ubonensis (O.Gruss) J.M.H.Shaw 2014	Thailand and Laos
	Phalaenopsis venosa Shim & Fowlie 1983	Celebes Islands, Sulawesi	914 meters.
	Phalaenopsis violacea Witte 1861	Malaya to Sumatra	150 meters.
	Phalaenopsis viridis J.J. Sm 1907	Sumatra	700 – 1000 meters
	Phalaenopsis wilsonii Rolfe 1909	Sichuan, Eastern Tibet,Yunnan, and Guangxi, China	800 – 2200 meters
	Phalaenopsis yingjiangensis (Z.H.Tsi) Kocyan & Schuit. 2014	Yunnan China and India	1584 meters
	Phalaenopsis zhejiangensis (Z.H.Tsi) Schuit. 2012	Zhejiang China	300 – 900 meters

Natural hybrids

• Phalaenopsis × amphitrite Kraenzl. (P. sanderiana × P. stuartiana; Mindanao, Philippines)
• Phalaenopsis × gersenii (P. sumatrana × P. violacea; Borneo and Sumatra)
• Phalaenopsis hieroglyphica × lueddemanniana (P. hieroglyphica × P. lueddemanniana; Philippines)
• Phalaenopsis × intermedia Lindl. (P. aphrodite × P. equestris; star of Leyte; Leyte, Philippines) (First recognized Phalaenopsis hybrid)
  • Phalaenopsis × intermedia var. diezii (P. aphrodite × P. equestris; star of Leyte; Leyte, Philippines)
• Phalaenopsis × leucorrhoda Rchb.f. (P. aphrodite × P. schilleriana; Luzon, Philippines)
• Phalaenopsis × rolfeana H.R.Sweet
• Phalaenopsis × rothschildiana (P. amabilis × P. schilleriana; Luzon, Philippines)
• Phalaenopsis × schilleriano-stuartiana (P. schilleriana × P. stuartiana; Leyte, Philippines)
• Phalaenopsis × singuliflora (P. bellina × P. sumatrana; Borneo)
• Phalaenopsis × valentinii Rchb.f.
• Phalaenopsis × veitchiana (P. equestris × P. schilleriana; Luzon and Leyte, Philippines)

Floral arrangement

Intergeneric hybrids

The following nothogenera have been established for intergeneric hybrids which include species of Phalaenopsis as ancestors.

• ×Aeridopsis (Aerides × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Arachnopsis (Arachnis × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Asconopsis (Ascocentrum × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Beardara (Ascocentrum × Doritis × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Bogardara (Ascocentrum × Phalaenopsis × Vanda × Vandopsis)
• ×Bokchoonara (Arachnis × Ascocentrum × Phalaenopsis × Vanda)
• ×Cleisonopsis (Cleisocentron × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Devereuxara (Ascocentrum × Phalaenopsis × Vanda)
• ×Diplonopsis (Diploprora × Phalaenopsis)

Pink phalaenopsis (moth) orchids

• ×Doriellaopsis (Doritis × Kingiella × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Doritaenopsis (Doritis × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Dresslerara (Ascoglossum × Phalaenopsis × Renanthera )
• ×Edeara (Arachnis × Phalaenopsis × Renanthera × Vandopsis)
• ×Ernestara (Phalaenopsis × Renanthera × Vandopsis)
• ×Eurynopsis (Eurychone × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Hagerara (Doritis × Phalaenopsis × Vanda)
• ×Hausermannara (Doritis × Phalaenopsis × Vandopsis)
• ×Himoriara (Ascocentrum × Phalaenopsis × Rhynchostylis × Vanda)
• ×Isaoara (Aerangis × Ascocentrum × Phalaenopsis × Vanda)
• ×Laycockara (Arachnis × Phalaenopsis × Vandopsis)
• ×Lichtara (Doritis × Gastrochilus × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Luinopsis (Luisia × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Lutherara (Phalaenopsis × Renanthera × Rhynchostylis )
• ×Macekara (Arachnis × Phalaenopsis × Renanthera × Vanda × Vandopsis)
• ×Meechaiara (Ascocentrum × Doritis × Phalaenopsis × Rhynchostylis × Vanda)
• ×Moirara (Phalaenopsis × Renanthera × Vanda)
• ×Nakagawaara (Aerides × Doritis × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Owensara (Doritis × Phalaenopsis × Renanthera )
• ×Parnataara (Aerides × Arachnis × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Paulara (Ascocentrum × Doritis × Phalaenopsis × Renanthera × Vanda)
• ×Pepeara (Ascocentrum × Doritis × Phalaenopsis × Renanthera )
• ×Phalaerianda (Aerides × Phalaenopsis × Vanda)
• ×Phalandopsis (Phalaenopsis × Vandopsis)
• ×Phalanetia (Neofinetia × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Phaliella (Kingiella × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Phalphalaenopsis (Phalaenopsis × Paraphalaenopsis)
• ×Pooleara (Ascocentrum × Ascoglossum × Phalaenopsis × Renanthera )
• ×Renanthopsis (Phalaenopsis × Renanthera )
• ×Rhynchonopsis (Phalaenopsis × Rhynchostylis)
• ×Rhyndoropsis (Doritis × Phalaenopsis × Rhynchostylis)
• ×Richardmizutaara (Ascocentrum × Phalaenopsis × Vandopsis)
• ×Roseara (Doritis × Kingiella × Phalaenopsis × Renanthera )
• ×Sappanara (Arachnis × Phalaenopsis × Renanthera)
• ×Sarconopsis (Phalaenopsis × Sarcochilus)
• ×Sidranara (Ascocentrum × Phalaenopsis × Renanthera)
• ×Sladeara (Doritis × Phalaenopsis × Sarcochilus)
• ×Stamariaara (Ascocentrum × Phalaenopsis × Renanthera × Vanda)
• ×Sutingara (Arachnis × Ascocentrum × Phalaenopsis × Vanda × Vandopsis)
• ×Trautara (Doritis × Luisia × Phalaenopsis)
• ×Trevorara (Arachnis × Phalaenopsis × Vanda)
• ×Trichonopsis (Phalaenopsis × Trichoglottis)
• ×Uptonara (Phalaenopsis × Rhynchostylis × Sarcochilus)
• ×Vandaenopsis (Phalaenopsis × Vanda)
• ×Vandewegheara (Ascocentrum × Doritis × Phalaenopsis × Vanda)
• ×Yapara (Phalaenopsis × Rhynchostylis × Vanda)
• ×Yeepengara (Aerides × Phalaenopsis × Rhynchostylis × Vanda)

Post-pollination changes

Phalaenopsis are unique in that in some species, the flowers turn into green leaves after pollination. As in many other plants, the petals of the orchid flowers serve to attract pollinating insects and protect essential organs. Following pollination, petals usually will undergo senescence (i.e. wilt and disintegrate) because it is metabolically expensive to maintain them. In many Phalaenopsis species, such as P. violacea, the petals and sepals find new uses following pollination, thus escaping programmed cell death. In producing chloroplasts, they turn green, become fleshy, and apparently, start to photosynthesize, as leaves do.[11]

Ecology

In Phalaenopsis, phenylpropanoid enzymes are enhanced in the process of plant acclimatisation at different levels of photosynthetic photon flux.[12]

Use in horticulture

Phalaenopsis bellina

Phalaenopsis, abbreviated Phal in the horticultural trade,[13] are among the most popular orchids sold as potted plants, owing to the ease of propagation and flowering under artificial conditions. They were among the first tropical orchids in Victorian collections. Since the advent of the tetraploid hybrid Phalaenopsis Doris, they have become extremely easy to grow and flower in the home, as long as some care is taken to provide them with conditions that approximate their native habitats. Their commercial production has become an industry.

If very healthy, a Phalaenopsis plant may have up to ten or more leaves. They bloom in their full glory for several weeks. If kept in the home, the flowers may last two to three months after which a phalaenopsis orchid will need to conserve energy for further leaf, bud, and root development.[14]

In nature, Phalaenopsis species are typically fond of warm temperatures, thriving in temperatures around 20 to 35 °C (68–95 °F), but are adaptable to conditions more comfortable for human habitation in temperate zones (15 to 30 °C or 59–86 °F); at temperatures below 18 °C (64.4 °F) overwatering causes root rot. Phalaenopsis requires high humidity (60–70%) and low light of 12,000 to 20,000 lux. However, Phalaenopsis orchids can adapt to the lower humidity found in most homes. They are also typically hardier than other species of orchids, and this makes them particularly popular among first-time orchid growers.[15]

The flower spikes appear from the pockets near the base of each leaf. The first sign is a light green "mitten-like" object that protrudes from the basal leaf tissue. Over approximately three months the spike elongates until it begins to swell fat buds that will bloom.

It previously was believed that flowering is triggered by a night-time drop in temperature of around 5 to 6 degrees over two to four consecutive weeks, usually in the fall, and a day-time drop in temperature to below 29 °C (84 °F). Using two Phalaenopsis clones, Matthew G. Blanchard and Erik S. Runkle (2006) established that, other culture conditions being optimal, flower initiation is controlled by daytime temperatures declining below 27 °C (81 °F), with a definite inhibition of flowering at temperatures exceeding 29 °C (84 °F). The long-held belief that reduced evening temperatures control flower initiation in Phalaenopsis was shown to be false. Rather, lower daytime temperatures influence flowering, while night time temperatures do not appear to have any effect.[16]

The effect of fertilizer source and medium composition on vegetative growth and mineral nutrition has been studied.[17]

References

1. "Phalaenopsis". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
2. Jones, David L. (2006). A complete guide to native orchids of Australia including the island territories. Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: New Holland. p. 440. ISBN 978-1877069123.
3. Chen, Xinqi; Wood, Jeffrey James. "Phalaenopsis". Flora of China. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
4. "Phalaenopsis". Trin keys. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
5. "Genus Phalaenopsis". Orchids of New Guinea. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
6. "Phalaenopsis Page". Internet Orchid Species Photo Encyclopedia. Jay Pfahl. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
7. Blume, Carl Ludwig (1825). Bijdragen tot de flora van Nederlandsch Indië (Part 7). Batavia. p. 294. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
8. Brown, Roland Wilbur (1956). The Composition of Scientific Words. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
9. Coombes, Allen J. (1994). Dictionary of Plant Names. London: Hamlyn Books. ISBN 978-0-600-58187-1. p. 140
10. "Alphabetical list of standard abbreviations of all generic names occurring in current use in orchid hybrid registration as at 31st December 2007" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society.
11. Wouter G. van Doorn (October 2005). "Plant programmed cell death and the point of no return". Trends in Plant Science. 10 (10): 478–483. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2005.08.003. PMID 16153879.
12. Mohammad Babar Ali, Serida Khatun, Eun-Joo Hahn and Kee-Yoeup Paek,, 2006. "Enhancement of phenylpropanoid enzymes and lignin in Phalaenopsis orchid and their influence on plant acclimatisation at different levels of photosynthetic photon flux". Plant Growth Regulation volume 49, Numbers 2-3, pages 137-146, doi:10.1007/s10725-006-9003-z
13. http://www.orchidsplus.com/phalaenopsis-moth-orchids/
14. "How to Care for Orchids: A Comprehensive Organic Guide".
15. Growing Conditions for Phalaenopsis Orchids, Accessed 11/11/2012 Archived 2013-01-14 at the Wayback Machine
16. Blanchard, Matthew G; Runkle, Erik S (2006). "Temperature during the day, but not during the night, controls flowering of Phalaenopsis orchids". Journal of Experimental Botany. 57 (15): 4043–4050. doi:10.1093/jxb/erl176. PMID 17075080.
17. Wang, Yin-Tung; Konow, Elise A. (2002). "Fertilizer Source and Medium Composition Affect Vegetative Growth and Mineral Nutrition of a Hybrid Moth Orchid". American Society for Horticultural Science. 127 (3): 442–447. Retrieved 29 April 2020.

• Seon Kim; Clifford W. Morden; Yoneo Sagawa & Jae -Young Kim (2003). "The Phylogeny of Phalaenopsis Species". Proceedings of NIOC2003, Nagoya, Japan.
• Olaf Gruss & Manfred Wolf - Phalaenopsis ; Edition Ulmer, ISBN 3-8001-6551-1 (in German)
• Eric A. Christenson - Phalaenopsis: a Monograph ; ISBN 0-88192-494-6
• Harper, Tom (February 2004). Phalaenopsis Culture: Advice for Growing 20 Species. Orchids Magazine 73 (2). Delray Beach, FL: American Orchid Society, 2004
• Leroy-Terquem, Gerald and Jean Parisot. 1991. Orchids: Care and Cultivation. London: Cassel Publishers Ltd.
• Schoser, Gustav. 1993. Orchid Growing Basics. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc.
• White, Judy. 1996. Taylor’s Guide to Orchids. Frances Tenenbaum, Series Editor. New York: Houghton-Mifflin, ISBN 0395677262

External links

• Phalaenopsis orchids : species and primary hybrids
• Phalaenopsis orchid care instructions
• Phalaenopsis at Curlie