BMPT Terminator

The BMPT "Terminator" (Tank Support Fighting Vehicle)[2] is an armored fighting vehicle (AFV), designed and manufactured by the Russian company Uralvagonzavod. This vehicle was designed for supporting tanks and other AFVs in urban areas. The BMPT is unofficially named the "Terminator" by the manufacturers. It is heavily armed and armored to survive in urban combat. This AFV is armed with Ataka-T Guided Weapon System[3] armed with four 9M120 Ataka missile launchers, two 30 mm 2A42 autocannons, two AG-17D grenade launchers, and one coaxial 7.62 mm PKTM machine gun.

BMPT Terminator

BMPT Terminator at the 2009 Russian Expo Arms
BMPT-72 Terminator 2 at the 2016 'Army-2016'
TypeFire support combat vehicle
Missile tank
Place of originRussia
Service history
In service2011–present
Used byRussian Federation, Kazakhstan, Algeria
WarsSyrian Civil War[1]
Iraqi Civil War[1]
Production history
DesignerUral Transport Engineering Design Bureau
Designed1998–2002
ManufacturerUralvagonzavod
Produced2002–present
VariantsBMPT-72
Specifications (BMPT)
Mass48 t (53 short tons; 47 long tons)
Length7.2 m (23 ft 7 in)
Width3.37 m (11 ft 1 in)[lower-alpha 1]
3.8 m (12 ft 6 in)[lower-alpha 2]
Height1.94 m (6 ft 4 in)[lower-alpha 3]
3.44 m (11 ft 3 in)
Crew5
ArmorCombination of composite armor, reactive armor and steel
Main
armament
4× 130 mm Ataka-T GWS launchers
2× 30 mm 2A42 autocannons
Secondary
armament
2× 30 mm AG-17D or 2x AGS-30 grenade launchers
1× 7.62 mm PKTM machine gun
EngineV-92S2 diesel engine
1,000 hp (736 kW)
Power/weight20.4 hp/tonne (15.0 kW/tonne)
SuspensionTorsion bar
Ground clearance406 mm (16.0 in)
Fuel capacity1,200 L (320 US gal)
Operational
range
≥550 km (340 mi)
Maximum speed ≥60 km/h (37 mph)

The BMPT is built on the chassis of the T-72 main battle tank which is used in large numbers by the Russian Army and has been manufactured under license by many other countries. The BMPT was designed based on combat experience gained during the Soviet–Afghan War and the First Chechen War. Multiple prototypes of a tank support combat vehicle were created prior to the design of the current BMPT. The Object 199 "Ramka" was the prototype later to be known as the modern BMPT with the official producer being Uralvagonzavod. As of late 2013, the only operator of the BMPT was Kazakhstan.

A small number were delivered to the Russian Ground Forces for evaluation beginning in 2005. The Russian Defence Ministry finally ordered the BMPT in August 2017.[4] Deliveries of more than 10 vehicles were begun in early 2018. The version, unofficially referred to as the "Terminator-3," incorporates the chassis, hulls, and components of the T-90A tank.[5][6]

Design history
During the Battle of Grozny (1994–95), it was evident that infantry fighting vehicles, like the BMP-2 (pictured), did not have sufficient protection for urban combat.[7]

The history of the BMPT's development can be traced back to the Soviet–Afghan War. Combat experience during the lengthy war revealed that infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) like the BMP-1 and BMP-2 cannot fully cope with infantry despite the latter having a high gun elevation. Although main battle tanks (MBTs) possessed a high amount of firepower, the limited elevation and depression of the main gun made them easy targets in mountainous and urban terrain. In the 1980s, the Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant began designing prototypes for the new concept, early prototypes being Object 781, Object 782 and Object 787. It was evident that a new vehicle concept was needed. The main requirements for this new machine was that it possessed large firepower, a high angle of gun fire, and the protection equivalent to that of an MBT. An additional requirement that was meant to supplement the latter was enhanced protection from close range hand-held RPGs.[7]

The need for a vehicle with all these requirements became even more evident during the First Chechen War. When using conventional armor during urban engagements, Russian forces suffered heavy losses in manpower and equipment, including the destruction of an entire mechanized brigade during the first battle of Grozny. While these losses cannot be entirely blamed on technology, it became clear that a dedicated anti-personnel fighting vehicle would provide valuable assistance in an urban environment. Self-propelled anti-aircraft (AA) guns were pressed as a temporary solution in Chechnya. However, these vehicles were not well-armored and did not possess the same obstacle-clearing capability as an MBT.[8]

There have been several different prototype designs of a tank support fighting vehicle. For instance, the Object 193A and the Object 745. A mock-up of the Object 199 was shown for the first time in public during the summer of 2000. This vehicle was slightly different from the current design, being armed with only a single 2A42 30 mm gun and with four 9M133 Kornet missiles located on one side of the turret. The production model of the BMPT was introduced in 2002 which featured the twin 30 mm autocannons, the two independent 30 mm automatic grenade launchers, and the four Ataka missile launchers.[7]

Mission

When used in urban terrain, each main battle tank is deployed with two BMPTs. Outside of urban warfare that ratio is reversed with one BMPT protecting two main battle tanks.[9] This results from the complexity of fighting in urban terrain and the need for a versatile anti-personnel platform that can engage multiple targets at once and on different height levels. The introduction of such a vehicle makes urban fighting less stressful on MBTs and can relieve them of some of the workload so that they can concentrate on their main objective of engaging other MBT and hardened targets. The BMPT's armor protection is equal to that of an MBT and its powerful armaments allow it to engage virtually every enemy formation while operating in a common battle formation. Due to the multiple weapons systems found on the BMPT, this vehicle is able to fire at multiple targets simultaneously.[7] These features significantly help increase the combat effectiveness of tank units and decrease their losses from enemy close-combat assets.[10]

Description

Armament

The armament includes an unmanned turret[11] armed with:

  • four launchers for the 130 mm 9M120 Ataka-T anti-tank guided missile (ATGM)
  • two 30 mm 2A42 with 850 rounds
  • either two AG-17D or two AGS-30 30 mm grenade launchers with 600 rounds
  • one 7.62 mm PKTM machine gun with 2,000 rounds

Anti-tank guided weapons
Further information: 9M120 Ataka
The BMPT uses the Ataka missile to defeat heavily armored vehicles like tanks.[12]

The Terminator has four Ataka ATGM launchers as a set of primary armaments to defeat enemy tanks and infantry. Only one missile is carried for each of the launchers without any additional ones stowed away. Two ATGM launchers are located on each side of the turret. These launchers have an elevation of up to +25°; the minimum elevation is −5°.[12] Laser beam riding SACLOS is the method of guidance used by the Terminator's ATGMs. The 9M120 Ataka missile has anti-tank, anti-personnel and anti-aircraft variants; the first two being the most commonly used by the BMPT. The original 9M120 Ataka missile is 130 mm in diameter and features a tandem warhead capable of defeating explosive reactive armor (ERA). The tandem warhead penetrates 800 mm of Rolled homogeneous armor (RHA) behind ERA with later variants capable of penetrating 950 mm of RHA after ERA. The anti-personnel variant (9M120F) contains a thermobaric warhead and yields a blast effect of 9.5 kg in TNT equivalence.[13][14] This missile's average speed for all variants is 400 m/s when reaching a target located 5.8 km from the launcher for a flight time of 14.5 seconds. The 9M120 has an operational range of up to 6 km[lower-alpha 4] and travels at a supersonic speed of 550 m/s.[13]

Autocannons

The BMPT has an additional set of weapons consisting of two 30 mm 2A42 autocannons. A total of 850 rounds of ready use ammunition can be carried. These twin autocannons have a combined fire rate of 600 rounds per minute. Traversal of the autocannons is in sync with the turret and it can elevate between −5° and +45°. The twin 2A42s are stabilized in the vertical and horizontal planes.[12] One of the guns fires armor-piercing rounds while the other fires anti-personnel rounds. A wide range of ammunition is used by the 2A42 autocannon and they include: High Explosive-Tracer (HE-T), Armor-piercing discarding sabot (APDS), High Explosive Fragmentation (HE-FRAG) and Armor-Piercing-Tracer (AP-T). These rounds have effective ranges between 2,500 m and 4,000 m depending on the variant. The muzzle velocity of the projectiles is 960 m/s.[15] A 7.62 mm PKTM machine gun is mounted coaxially with the main armament and holds 2,000 rounds.[7]

Grenade launchers
Further information: AGS-17

A pair of either AGS-17D or AGS-30 grenade launchers[16] are carried, one located on each side of the BMPT, and operated by a single crew member. A total of 600 rounds of 30 mm grenades are carried for both grenade launchers. There is no reloading for the grenade launchers because each one holds 300 rounds in a single belt.[7] Only vertical stabilization is provided for the grenade launchers. The horizontal angles that the AG-17Ds can cover are from 5° (to the left) to 27° (to the right) for the right grenade launcher and from 27° (to the left) and 5° (to the right) for the left grenade launcher. The maximum vertical elevation is +20° and the minimum is −5.5°.[12] The muzzle velocity is 185 m/s and the fire rate is 420–480 rds/min. An effective range of 1,700 m is provided while the kill radius of the 30 mm grenades is seven meters.[17] Automatic grenade launcher operators are equipped with the "Agat-MR" day/night independent stabilized sights.[7]

Fire control system
The commander's panoramic sight (located on the roof) gives the BMPT hunter-killer capabilities by continuously scanning targets for the gunner.[7]

To enable the BMPT to engage targets in both day and night conditions and when the BMPT is stationary or moving, a computerized fire-control system is fitted. The sight of the gunner includes a thermal channel, an optical channel, a guided ATGM channel, and a laser rangefinder. The field of view sight has an independent stabilization in two planes. The sights provide detection of targets at ranges up to 7,000 m in poor weather conditions.[7] The commander's B07-K1 panoramic sight is located at the top of the BMPT and has a 360° field of view. This panoramic sight has optical, low-level laser rangefinder and television channels. The B07-K2 standard gunner's sight consists of optical and thermal channels and a laser rangefinder. The vehicle also has hunter-killer capabilities with its separate commander's panoramic sight and gunner's sight which can detect both ground and aerial targets. The gunner is able to use the commander's sight to engage targets if his own sight is disabled or destroyed. The commander of the vehicle also has the ability to override the command to take control of the turret and guns from the gunner. The navigation system used by the BMPT is a combined GPS/GLONASS module.[7]

Protection

The Terminator possesses a System 902A automatic smoke grenade launcher on both sides of the turret which serves as camouflage and provides protection against infrared weapons.[10] Special attention was paid to the survivability of the BMPT and its crew. Certain measures were taken to ensure this like placing the fuel tanks in a sealed housing compartment and fastening the seats towards the roof in case of a mine penetration.[10] There are additional fuel tanks located in the rear of the hull in an armored compartment on the left fender. The vehicle is equipped with an automatic fire fighting system to fight any fires that will ignite within the vehicle.[18]

Mobility

The torsion bar suspension on each side consists of six roadwheels with the idler at the front, drive sprocket at the rear and three return rollers supporting the inside of the track only.[18] Like the T-72, the BMPT has a built in dozer to overcome obstacles.[10] The maximum speed of the vehicle is 60 km/h over highways and a cruising range of 550 km with external fuel tanks. The BMPT can cross a trench that's as long as 2.7 ± 0.1 m and over come vertical obstacles as high as 0.85 m. Like the T-72, the transmission of the engine is manual with seven gears for forward and one gear for reverse. The maximum gradient for the BMPT is 30° and 25° when climbing forwards and travelling along a side respectively. Fording capabilities are provided by the BMPT. It can cross water obstacles with a depth of 1.2 m without preparation and 1.8 m with five minutes of preparation. When installed with a snorkel kit, this vehicle is able to cross rivers up to five meters in depth.[12]

Crew and life support

The rear of the driver's compartment, at the front of the vehicle, has been raised, providing greater internal volume. It uses proven elements from those fitted to the T-90 MBT.[10] The Terminator has a crew of five which consists of: a vehicle commander, a driver, a gunner, and two grenade launcher operators. NBC protection is provided to the crew to ensure survival against radiation, chemical and biological weapons. As an option, the BMPT can be fitted with mine-clearing devices such as the KMT-7 or KMT-8 mine sweepers. T-72 tanks can be also converted into BMPT.[10]

Variants

BMPT-72 Terminator 2

In September 2013, Uralvagonzavod unveiled the latest armored fighting vehicle at the Russian Arms Expo 2013 exhibition in Nizhny Tagil, Russia.[19][20][21][22] This vehicle was identified as the BMPT-72 "Terminator 2" and was built as a successor to the BMPT. The "Terminator 2" vehicle is substantially similar when compared to its predecessor. Like its predecessor, it is built on a base T-72 hull – including drivetrain, running gear and so on – and has been designed to operate alongside MBTs or independently. The Terminator 2 can be effectively used to destroy enemy tanks, armored personnel carriers and other armored assets, and to suppress enemy firing emplacements and infantry using grenade launchers and antitank weapons systems.[23] Unlike the Terminator 1 however, the Terminator 2 is a retrofit only package, with only old T-72s and similar being upgraded to BMPT-72 standard (no new build vehicles). The Terminator 2 is aimed at the export market (in particular as part of offset deals).

A Uralvagonzavod spokesperson told a select audience at the exhibition that "the key advantage that the BMPT-72 gives to all the countries that operate T-72 tanks is that they can promptly and at minimal cost upgrade their armies to an ultra-modern level, and enhance capacity, mobility, protection and armament without purchasing new high-cost machines."[22] In addition, the conversion process of the obsolete vehicles can be undertaken at the customer facilities.[20] The overseer of the Russian defense and space industries – Dmitry Rogozin – said future versions of the BMPT will likely be based on the Armata Universal Combat Platform.[22]

Armament and FCS

The two automatic grenade launchers are removed along with its operators, reducing the crew to three;[20][23] the number of munitions for the Ataka missiles, 2A42 autocannons, and PKTM machine gun remains unchanged. A new and improved FCS is installed in the BMPT-72. During daytime, the maximum distance for identifying a tank sized target is 5,000 m[23] with the sighting channel and 3,500 m with the thermal channel.[24] The ballistic computer is electronic and fully digital with a set of weather and topographical sending units.[23]

Air burst munitions are under development for BMPT and other Russian military vehicles.[25][26][27][28]

Protection

Although the weight of the new BMPT is reduced by four metric tonnes, it still boasts a high level of protection like its predecessor.[23] The Terminator 2 is shorter and thinner than the original Terminator. The BMPT-72 has a height of 3.33 m and a width of 3.6 m while the Object 199 Ramka had a height of 3.44 m and a width of 3.8 m. The upper part of the suspension is protected by armor plates towards the front and slat armor towards the rear. Additional slat armor is fitted on the rear and sides of the chassis to increase protection against rocket propelled grenades. Missile launchers for the Ataka missiles are fitted with extra armor to provide protection against splinters and small arms fire.[24] CBRN protection is provided for the crew members and is collective.[23] In addition to the combined armor modules, the BMPT-72 is equipped with a screening system designed to counter laser target-designators and laser rangefinders.[20] A type R-168-25UE-2 radio is installed on board the Terminator 2.[23]

Mobility

The mobility of the BMPT-72 does not differ significantly from the original BMPT.[23] It can be fitted with two different engines, the original 840 hp V84MS or the new 1,000 hp V92S2. Both of these engines are 12 cylinder V type multi-fuel, liquid cooled diesel engines. The V92S2 (В92С2) is a turbocharged engine which offers higher power and efficiency. The engine is coupled to a hydraulically assisted transmission with seven forward gears and one reverse gear.[24]

BMPT-72 Terminator 3

BMPT-72 Terminator 3 will be based on Armata Universal Combat Platform and have an automatic gun turret and in the future may have integrated air defense systems and may be fully unmanned.[29]

Operators
Map with BMPT Terminator operators in blue

Current operators
 Russia
 Kazakhstan
  • Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan – 10 BMPT units were ordered in 2010 and delivered by Russia from 2011 to 2013.[33] Three of these vehicles were showcased for the first time during the 2011 Constitution Day parade.[34] In 2012, an additional 30 BMPTs were selected but may have not yet been ordered by late 2013.[33] As of early 2014, in addition to the purchase of the vehicles, licensed assembly will be implemented with a number of techniques from kits supplied by Russia. This dual production between UralVagonZavod and Kazakhstan was scheduled to open by 2015.[35][36]
 Algeria
  • People's National Army (Algeria) – In April 2016, Russia and Algeria concluded an agreement for the delivery of 300 Russian "Terminators". Deliveries are scheduled to begin in the first quarter of 2018 and continue until the end of 2019.[37][38]

Potential operators
 Azerbaijan
  • Azerbaijani Land Forces – At the DEX 2014 defence exhibition in Baku, Rosoboronexport proposed an in-depth modernization of the current T-72 tanks to the Fire Support Combat Vehicle configuration. Azeri President Ilham Aliyev expressed interest in the "Terminator-2" along with the Ka-52 "Alligator" helicopter.[39]
 Peru
  • Peruvian Army – Uralvagonzavod proposed a solution for modernization of old Russian made T-55s by installing the turret of the BMPT. The land forces of the Peruvian army wanted to purchase a new main battle tank in late 2013. According to Uralvagonzavod, the engine, transmission, and suspension of T-55 tank should not be changed if the upgrade takes place. It is also possible to upgrade the powerpack and suspension to increase the level of mobility.[40]
gollark: I wanted to run https://github.com/oragono/oragono. Is this compatible?
gollark: Fun!
gollark: Okay, how can I "peer" with you?
gollark: I WOULD REGISTER osmarks.net OR zxfn.net OR void.bz OR osmarks.website BEFORE osmarks.ga.
gollark: NEVER

See also

Notes
  1. Width across the tracks
  2. Width across the broad screens
  3. Height of hull excluding the turret
  4. According to the Degtyarev plant, the operational range is actually up to 5800 m for the 9M120 and 9M120F variants[14]

References
  1. "BMPT Terminator near Salamiyah, eastern Hama - Album on Imgur". imgur.com. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
  2. "BMPT Tank Support Combat Vehicle - Army Technology". Archived from the original on 2 September 2018.
  3. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 1 September 2018. Retrieved 1 September 2018.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  4. "Russian Army's wish list: 100 Armata tanks, Terminators, mystery nuclear-related device (PHOTOS) — RT World News". RT. Archived from the original on 27 August 2017. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
  5. First BMPT tank support vehicle delivered in 2018 to Russian army Archived 21 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine - Armyrecognition.com, 17 January 2018
  6. "RUSSIAN TANK BMPT-3 (NEW 2018): The first batch produced [HD1080p]". YouTube. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
  7. "BMPT "Ramka-99"". btvtnarod.ru (in Russian). Archived from the original on 24 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  8. Grau, Lester W. (January 1997). "Russian-Manufactured Armored Vehicle Vulnerability in Urban Combat: The Chechnya Experience". Red Thrust Star. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  9. "Rossiyskaya armiya vooruzhitsya tyazhelym "Terminatorom"". LƐNTA·RU (in Russian). 15 March 2005. Archived from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  10. "BMP-T Russian Military Analysis". warfare.be. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  11. "BMPT-72 Terminator 2 tank support armoured fighting vehicle". Archived from the original on 23 December 2018.
  12. "UralVagonZavod – Boyevaya mashina ognevoy podderzhki Terminator". UralVagonZavod (in Russian). Archived from the original on 25 June 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  13. "9M120 ATAKA-B". airwar.ru (in Russian). Archived from the original on 21 November 2016. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  14. "V.A. Degtyarev Plant: 9M120 (9M120F) Ataka Missile". Open Joint Stock Company V.A. Degtyarev Plant. Archived from the original on 3 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  15. "KBP Instrument Design Bureau – 2A42". KBP Instrument Design Bureau. Archived from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  16. "BMPT Tank Support Combat Vehicle | Military-Today.com". Archived from the original on 9 October 2018.
  17. "AG-17 30mm Automatic Genade Launcher – Minotor-Service, Minsk, Belarus". Minotor Service. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  18. "BMP-T Terminator Infantry combat armoured vehicle". Army Recognition. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  19. "The Russian BMPT-72 Terminator 2". TankNutDave.com. Archived from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
  20. Foss, Christopher; Williams, Huw (26 September 2013). "RAE 2013: Terminator 2 makes its debut". Jane's. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  21. "Terminator 2 version of Russian BMPT infantry support vehicle unveiled at REA 2013". Army Recognition. 16 September 2013. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  22. "Russia Unveils 'Terminator-2' Tank Support Vehicle". RIA Novosti. 25 September 2013. Archived from the original on 29 September 2013. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  23. "TERMINATOR 2 – UralVagonZavod". UralVagonZavod. Archived from the original on 3 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  24. "BMPT-72 Terminator 2 Tank support armoured fighting vehicle". Army Recognition. Archived from the original on 15 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  25. "Russia's Military Built a 'Terminator' And Now It's Getting Smart Weapons". Archived from the original on 8 October 2018.
  26. "Cloud from shrapnel: how controlled ammunition will strengthen the power of Russian armored vehicles - International News". Archived from the original on 16 October 2018.
  27. "TASS: Military & Defense - Russia to develop anti-drone shrapnel ammunition". Archived from the original on 28 October 2018.
  28. "UVZ to unveil modernized BMP-1 with 2A72 cannon at Army 2018 | August 2018 Global Defense Security army news industry | Defense Security global news industry army 2018 | Archive News year". Archived from the original on 19 August 2018.
  29. "Will Russia's 'Terminator' battle machines become fully robotic? - Russia Beyond". rbth.com. Archived from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
  30. "Russian Army Ordered Latest TSCVs Terminator and T-90M Tanks". mil.today. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
  31. "Партию бронемашин "Терминатор-2" передали Минобороны для участия в параде - РИА Новости, 27.03.2018". ria.ru. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
  32. "TASS: Military & Defense - Russia's top brass accepts Terminator tank support combat vehicles for service". tass.com. Archived from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
  33. "SIPRI Arms Transfers Database". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  34. Khlopotov, Alexey. "Boyevyye mashiny "UVZ" proshli po glavnoy ploshchadi Kazakhstana". Gur Khan Blogspot (in Russian). Archived from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  35. "BMPT razrabotki Uralvagonzavoda mogut sobirat'sya v Kazakhstane". VPK News (in Russian). 10 April 2014. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  36. "Vypusk BMPT "Terminator" startuyet v Kazakhstane v 2015 godu". Novosti Kazakhstana (in Russian). 10 April 2014. Archived from the original on 15 May 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  37. Dmitry Sudakov. "Israel and Syria fight for Russian meat-grinding 'Terminator'". pravdareport.com. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
  38. "Algeria acquiring BMPT armoured vehicles from Russia". Defence Web. 11 September 2017. Archived from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 11 September 2017.
  39. Novichkov, Nikolai (18 September 2014). "Baku expresses interest in Ka-52 and BMPT-72 'Terminator 2'". Jane's. Baku. Archived from the original on 22 September 2014. Retrieved 21 September 2014.
  40. "Russian Company Uralvagonzavod offers to upgrade Peruvian T-55 tank with BMPT Terminator turret". Army Recognition. 5 July 2013. Archived from the original on 7 January 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2014.

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.