Sulluh

Sulluh is a river of northern Ethiopia. Rising in the mountains of Mugulat (3298 metres above sea level), it flows southward to Giba River which empties finally in the Tekezé River.[2][3] Future Lake Giba will occupy the plain where Sulluh, Genfel and Agula'i Rivers meet.

Giba drainage network

Sulluh
Shugu'a Shugu'i confluence: Sulluh (from the back) and Genfel (from right) together form Giba River, flowing towards the photographer
Sulluh River in Tigray Region
Location
Country	Ethiopia
Region	Tigray Region
Districts (woreda)	Dogu’a Tembien, Kilte Awula’ilo, Hawzen
Physical characteristics
Source
• location	Slopes of Mugulat mountains
• elevation	2,746 m (9,009 ft)
Mouth	Giba River
• location	Shugu'a Shugu'i
• coordinates	13.648°N 39.415°E / 13.648; 39.415
• elevation	1,770 m (5,810 ft)
Length	87 km (54 mi)
Basin size	969 km^2 (374 sq mi)
Width
• average	35 m (115 ft)
Discharge
• location	Near the confluence at Shugu'a Shugu'i[1]
• maximum	338 m^3/s (11,900 cu ft/s)
Basin features
River system	Permanent river
Waterbodies	Addi Abagiè and many other reservoirs
Bridges	Road Hawzien-Senkata
Topography	Mountains and deep gorges

Hydrography

It is a confined river, locally meandering in its narrow alluvial plain, with a slope gradient of 11 metres per kilometre. With its tributaries, the river has cut a deep gorge.[4]

Hydrology

Hydrological characteristics

The runoff footprint or annual total runoff volume is 133 million m³. Peak discharges up to 338 m³ per second occur in the second part of the rainy season (month of August) when there are strong rains and the soils are saturated with water in many places. The percentage of total rainfall that directly leaves the catchment as storm runoff (also called runoff coefficient) is 13%. The total amount of sediment that is transported by this river amounts to 614,000 tonnes per year. Median sediment concentration in the river water is 2.93 grammes per litre, but may go up to 43 g/L. The highest sediment concentrations occur at the beginning of the rainy season, when loose soil and dust is washed away by overland flow and ends up in the river.[5] As such water contains many nutrients (locally it is called “aygi”), farmers estimate that it strengthens their cattle, which they will bring to the river.[4] All in all, average sediment yield is 890 tonnes per km² and per year. All measurements were done at a purposively installed station near the mouth of the river, in the years 2004-2007.[5]

Upper Sulluh catchment

Flash floods

Runoff mostly occurs in the form of high runoff discharge events that occur in a very short period (called flash floods). These are related to the steep topography, often little vegetation cover and intense convective rainfall. The peaks of such flash floods have often a 50 to 100 times larger discharge than the preceding baseflow. These flash floods mostly occur during the evening or night, because the convective rain showers occur in the afternoon.[4]

Middle Sulluh catchment

Changes over time

Evidence given by Italian aerial photographs of the catchment, taken in the 1930s show that 37% of the catchment was covered with woody vegetation (against 40% in 2014). This vegetation, and particularly the newly built conservation structures slow down runoff and impacts the runoff coefficient (9% in 1935 against 13% in 2014). As a consequence, discharges in the river were less than today.[6] Up to the 1980s, there was strong pressure on the environment, and much vegetation disappeared.[7] This river had its greatest discharges and width in that period. The magnitude of floods in this river has however been decreased in recent years due to interventions in the catchment. On other steep slopes, exclosures have been established; the dense vegetation largely contributes to enhanced infiltration, less flooding and better baseflow.[8] Physical conservation structures such as stone bunds[9][10] and check dams also intercept runoff.[11][12]

Irrigated agriculture

Besides springs and reservoirs, irrigation is strongly dependent on the river’s baseflow. Such irrigated agriculture is important in meeting the demands for food security and poverty reduction.[4] Irrigated lands are established in the narrow alluvial plains along the river in several places.

Transhumance towards the river gorge

The valley bottoms in the lower gorge of this river have been identified as a transhumance destination zone. Transhumance takes place in the summer rainy season, when the lands near the villages are occupied by crops. Young shepherds will take the village cattle down to the gorge and overnight in small caves. The gorges are particularly attractive as a transhumance destination zone, because there is water and good growth of semi-natural vegetation.[13]

Boulders and pebbles in the river bed

Boulders and pebbles encountered in the river bed can originate from any location higher up in the catchment. In the uppermost stretches of the river, only rock fragments of the upper lithological units will be present in the river bed, whereas more downstream one may find a more comprehensive mix of all lithologies crossed by the river. From upstream to downstream, the following lithological units occur in the catchment.[14]

• Upper basalt
• Interbedded lacustrine deposits
• Lower basalt
• Adigrat Sandstone
• Edaga Arbi Glacials
• Antalo Limestone
• Quaternary freshwater tufa[15]

Trekking along the river

Trekking routes have been established across and along this river.[16] The tracks are not marked on the ground but can be followed using downloaded .GPX files.[17] Trek 23 also allows visiting the confluence of Sulluh and Genfel at Shugu'a Shugu'i. In the rainy season, flash floods may occur and it is advised not to follow the river bed. Frequently, it is then also impossible to wade across the river.[18]

See also

• List of Ethiopian rivers

References

1. Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2013). "Spatial and temporal variability of river flows in the degraded semi-arid tropical mountains of northern Ethiopia". Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie. 57 (2): 143–169. doi:10.1127/0372-8854/2012/0080.
2. Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District. SpringerNature. ISBN 978-3-030-04954-6.
3. Solomon Hishe, Woldeamlak Bewket, Nyssen, J., Lyimo, J., 2020. Analyzing past land use land cover change and CA-Markov based future modeling in the Middle Suluh Valley, Northern Ethiopia. GeoCarto International, 35(3): 225-255.
4. Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District. SpringerNature. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14. ISBN 978-3-030-04954-6.
5. Vanmaercke, M. and colleagues (2010). "Sediment dynamics and the role of flash floods in sediment export from medium-sized catchments: a case study from the semi-arid tropical highlands in northern Ethiopia". Journal of Soils and Sediments. 10 (4): 611–627. doi:10.1007/s11368-010-0203-9.
6. Etefa Guyassa, 2017. PhD thesis. Hydrological response to land cover and management (1935-2014) in a semi-arid mountainous catchment of northern Ethiopia
7. Frankl, A., Nyssen, J., De Dapper, M., Mitiku Haile, Billi, P., Munro, R.N., Deckers, J. Poesen, J. 2011. Linking long-term gully and river channel dynamics to environmental change using repeat photography (North Ethiopia). Geomorphology, 129 (3-4): 238-251.
8. Descheemaeker, K. and colleagues (2006). "Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia". Journal of Hydrology. 331 (1–2): 219–241. doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011.
9. Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Gebremichael, Desta; Vancampenhout, Karen; d'Aes, Margo; Yihdego, Gebremedhin; Govers, Gerard; Leirs, Herwig; Moeyersons, Jan; Naudts, Jozef; Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2007). "Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia". Soil and Tillage Research. 94 (1): 151–163. doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011. hdl:1854/LU-378900.
10. Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues (2015). "Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands". Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie. 59 (4): 477–493. doi:10.1127/zfg/2015/0166.
11. Nyssen, J.; Veyret-Picot, M.; Poesen, J.; Moeyersons, J.; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, J.; Govers, G. (2004). "The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". Soil Use and Management. 20: 55–64. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x.
12. Etefa Guyassa and colleagues (2017). "Effects of check dams on runoff characteristics along gully reaches, the case of Northern Ethiopia". Journal of Hydrology. 545 (1): 299–309. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019.
13. Nyssen, Jan; Descheemaeker, Katrien; Zenebe, Amanuel; Poesen, Jean; Deckers, Jozef; Haile, Mitiku (2009). "Transhumance in the Tigray highlands (Ethiopia)". Mountain Research and Development. 29 (3): 255–264. doi:10.1659/mrd.00033.
14. Sembroni, A.; Molin, P.; Dramis, F. (2019). Regional geology of the Dogu'a Tembien massif. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains — The Dogu'a Tembien District. SpringerNature. ISBN 978-3-030-04954-6.
15. Moeyersons, J. and colleagues (2006). "Age and backfill/overfill stratigraphy of two tufa dams, Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia: Evidence for Late Pleistocene and Holocene wet conditions". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 230 (1–2): 162–178. Bibcode:2006PPP...230..165M. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.013.
16. Description of trekking routes in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District. SpringerNature. 2019. ISBN 978-3-030-04954-6.
17. https://www.openstreetmap.org/traces/tag/nyssen-jacob-frankl
18. Nyssen, Jan (2019). "Logistics for the Trekker in a Rural Mountain District of Northern Ethiopia". Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains. GeoGuide. Springer-Nature. pp. 537–556. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_37. ISBN 978-3-030-04954-6.