Proto-Iroquoian
Proto-Iroquoian is the name given to the hypothetical proto-language of the Iroquoian languages. Lounsbury (1961) estimated from glottochronology a time depth of 3,500 to 3,800 years for the split of South and North Iroquoian. At the time of first European contact, speakers of Iroquoian languages ranged from the Cherokee in the Great Smoky Mountains, to the Tuscarora and Nottoway near the modern Virginia/North Carolina border, then further north the Five Nations in Upstate New York and the Huron and Neutral in modern-day Ontario.
| Proto-Iroquoian | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Iroquoian languages |
| Era | ca. 1500 BCE |
Subdivisions
The Iroquoian languages are usually divided into two main groups: Southern Iroquoian (Cherokee) and Northern Iroquoian (all others) based on the great differences in vocabulary and modern phonology. Northern Iroquoian is then further divided by Lounsbury and Mithun into Proto-Tuscarora-Nottoway and Lake Iroquoian, although Julian (2010) does not believe Lake Iroquoian to be a valid subgrouping.
History of studies
Isolated studies were done by Chafe (1977a), Michelson (1988), and Rudes (1995). There have also been several works of internal reconstruction for daughter languages, in particular with Seneca and Mohawk. A preliminary full reconstruction of proto-Iroquoian was not provided until Charles Julian's (2010) work.
Phonology
Proto-Iroquoian as reconstructed shares the Iroquoian languages' notable typological traits of small consonant inventories, complex consonant clusters, and a lack of labial consonants.
Vowels
The reconstructed vowel inventory for Proto-Iroquoian is:[1]
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i iː | u uː | |
| Mid | e eː ẽ ẽː | o oː õ õː | |
| Open | a aː |
Like later Iroquoian languages, Proto-Iroquoian is distinguished in having nasal vowels /õ/ and /ẽ/, although it has more than in its daughter languages.
Consonants
The reconstructed consonant inventory for Proto-Iroquoian is given in the table below. The consonants of all Iroquoian languages pattern so that they may be grouped as (oral) obstruents, sibilants, laryngeals, and resonants (Lounsbury 1978:337).
| Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | t | k kʷ | ʔ | |
| Affricate | ts | |||
| Fricative | s | h | ||
| Nasal | n | |||
| Approximant | ɹ | j | w |
Morphology
Reconstructed functional morphemes from Julian (2010):
| No. | Gloss | Proto-Iroquoian | Proto-Northern Iroquoian |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 'negative' | *teɁ | |
| 2 | 'coincident' (perhaps also relativizer) | *ts | |
| 3 | 'contrastive' | *thi | |
| 4 | 'partitive' | *ijiː | |
| 5 | 'translocative' | *wi | |
| 6 | 'factual' | *waɁ | |
| 7 | 'duplicative' | *teː | |
| 8 | 'future' | *ẽː | |
| 9 | 'optative' | *aɹa | |
| 10 | 'cislocative' | *t | |
| 11 | 'repetitive' | *ts | |
| 12 | 'non-singular animate' | *ka | |
| 13 | '1:2.SG' | *kõː | |
| 14 | '1:2.DU' | *kni | |
| 15 | '1:2.PL' | *kwa | |
| 16 | '2:1.SG' | *hskʷi | |
| 17 | '2:1.DU' | *hskniː | |
| 18 | '2:1.PL' | *hskʷ… | |
| 19 | '1SG:3' | *ki | |
| 20 | 1SG:3A' (> PNI '1SG:3I') | *kiji | |
| 21 | '1SG:3M' | *he or *hɹi | |
| 22 | '2SG:3' | *hsi | |
| 23 | 2SG:3A' (> PNI '2SG:3I') | *hsiji | |
| 24 | '2SG:3M' | *hehse | |
| 25 | '3:1SG' | *wakʷi | |
| 26 | 3A:1SG' (> PNI '3I:1SG') | *jõːkʷi | |
| 27 | '3M:1SG' | *hɹake | |
| 28 | '3:2SG' | *tsa | |
| 29 | 3A:2SG' (> PNI 3I:2SG') | *jeːtsa | |
| 30 | '3M:2SG' | *hja | |
| 31 | '2DU&3' | *tsniː | |
| 32 | '2DU&3M' | *hshetsni | |
| 33 | '2PL&3' | *ts… | |
| 34 | '2PL&3M' | *hshetswa | |
| 35 | '2NS&3I' | *jetshi | |
| 36 | '1+2DU:3' | *tniː | |
| 37 | '1+2DU:3M' | *hshetni | |
| 38 | '1+2PL:3' | *t… | |
| 39 | '1+2PL:3M' | *hshetwa | |
| 40 | '1+3DU:3' | *jakni | |
| 41 | '1+3DU:3M' | *hshakni | |
| 42 | '1+3PL:3' | *jakwa | |
| 43 | '1+3PL:3M' | *hshakwa | |
| 44 | '3:1DU' | *kniː | |
| 45 | '3M:1DU' | *hshõkni | |
| 46 | '3:1PL' | *kʷ… | |
| 47 | '3M:1PL' | *hshõkwa | |
| 48 | '1+2NS:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) | *jethi | |
| 49 | 1+3NS:3I' (> Hu. 1NS:3I) | *jakhi | |
| 50 | 3I:1NS' (> Tu. '1NS&3I') | *jõkhi | |
| 51 | '3SG:3' (lexically determined variant 1) | *ka | |
| 52 | '3SG:3' (lexically determined variant 2) | *wa | |
| 53 | '3SGM:3' | *hɹa | |
| 54 | '3:3SG' | *juː | |
| 55 | '3:3SGM' | *hɹo | |
| 56 | '3DU:3' | *kni | |
| 57 | '3DUM:3' | *hni | |
| 58 | 3NS:3' (> PNI '3PL:3') | *wantiː | |
| 59 | '3PL:3' (second variant, in competition with *wati, #58) | *kõti | |
| 60 | '3PLM:3' | *hɹati | |
| 61 | '3:3NS' | *juːntiː | |
| 62 | '3:3NSM' | *hɹoti | |
| 63 | '3I:3' | *je | |
| 64 | '3:3I' | *jako | |
| 65 | '3SGM:3I' | *hshako | |
| 66 | 3A:3SGA' (> Ch. '3NS:3SG', PNI '3I:3SG') | *kõːwa | |
| 67 | '3I:3SGM' | *hɹõwa | |
| 68 | 3A:3NSA' (> Ch. '3NS:3NS', PNI '3I:3NS') | *kõːwantiː | |
| 69 | '3I:3NSM' | *hɹõwati | |
| 70 | '3NS:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) | *jakoti | |
| 71 | '3NSM:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) | *hshakoti | |
| 72 | '2:1.SG.IMP' | *take | |
| 73 | '2:1.DU.IMP' | *takni | |
| 74 | '1:2.PL.IMP' | *takwa | |
| 75 | '2SG:3.IMP' | *tse | |
| 76 | 'reflexive' | *ataːt | |
| 77 | 'semireflexive' (lexically determined variant 1) | *at | |
| 78 | 'semireflexive' (lexically determined variant 2) | *aɹ | |
| 79 | 'joiner vowel' | *a | |
| 80 | 'nominalizer' (lexically determined variant 1) | *hsɹ | |
| 81 | 'nominalizer' (lexically determined variant 2) | *Ɂtshɹ | |
| 82 | 'causative-instrumental' (lexically determined variant 1) | *t | |
| 83 | 'causative-instrumental' (lexically determined variant 2) | *hst | |
| 84 | 'instrumental' | *hkw | |
| 85 | 'reversive' (PNI lexically determined variant 1) | *kʷ | |
| 86 | 'reversive' (lexically determined variant 2) | *hsj | |
| 87 | 'inchoative' | *Ɂ | |
| 88 | 'dative-benefactive' (PNI lexically determined variant 1) | *ts | |
| 89 | 'dative-benefactive' (lexically determined variant 2) | *ẽ | |
| 90 | 'dative-benefactive' (lexically determined variant 3) | *ni | |
| 91 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 1) | *n | |
| 92 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 2) | *h | |
| 93 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 3) | *ts | |
| 94 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 4) | *tsɹ | |
| 95 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 5, limited to Iroquoia) | *ɹ | |
| 96 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 1) | *njõː | |
| 97 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 2) | *nõː | |
| 98 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 3) | *hõː | |
| 99 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 4) | *õː | |
| 100 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 5) | *ɹõː | |
| 101 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 6) | *ɹjõː | |
| 102 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 7) | *tsõː | |
| 103 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 8) | *tsɹõː | |
| 104 | 'progressive' | *tjeɁ | |
| 105 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) | *hs | |
| 106 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) | *ts | |
| 107 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) | *haɁ | |
| 108 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) | *h | |
| 109 | 'imperfective suffix' (cf. Cherokee imperfective verbs inhsk) | *hsk | |
| 110 | 'past habitual suffix' | *kʷ | |
| 111 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) | *Ɂ | |
| 112 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) | *ẽɁ | |
| 113 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) | *Ø | |
| 114 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) | *n | |
| 115 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) | *õh | |
| 116 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) | *ẽh | |
| 117 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) | *Ø | |
| 118 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) | *eɁ | |
| 119 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 5) | *ih | |
| 120 | 'past perfect suffix' | *n | |
| 121 | 'facilitative suffix' | *nskõːh | |
| 122 | 'modalizer suffix' | *k | |
| 123 | 'noun suffix' | *aɁ | |
| 124 | 'authenticative suffix' | *õweh | |
| 125 | 'characterizer suffix' | *haːɁ | |
| 126 | 'decessive suffix' | *kẽh | |
| 127 | 'intensifier suffix' | *tsih | |
| 128 | 'locative suffix' | *keh | |
| 129 | 'populative suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) | *ɹonõɁ | |
| 130 | 'populative suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) | *kaːɁ |
Lexicon
Reconstructed lexical roots and particles from Julian (2010):
| No. | Gloss | Proto-Iroquoian | Proto-Northern Iroquoian | Proto-Mohawk- Oneida | Huron (Common Huron-Petun) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 131 | 'path, road, trail' | *-ah-, *-(a)hah- | |||
| 132 | 'be bad, be ugly, be useless' | *-(a)hetkẽɁ | |||
| 133 | 'be salty, be sour' | *-ahjoɁtsihs, *-oɁtsihst- | |||
| 134 | 'bark, wood, wood chips' | *-ahkaɹ- | |||
| 135 | 'be ten' | *-ahnshẽːh | |||
| 136 | 'ear' | *-(a)hõht- | |||
| 137 | 'count' | *-(a)hɹaːt- | |||
| 138 | 'hear, speak a language, understand' | *-ahɹõk- | |||
| 139 | 'foot' | *-aːhs-, *-aːhsiɁt- | |||
| 140 | 'three' | *ahsẽh | |||
| 141 | 'string' | *ahsɹijeɁ | |||
| 142 | 'shoe' | *-ahtahkʷ-, *ahtaɁ | |||
| 143 | 'be forbidden, be prohibited, be strict, be taboo' | *-ahtjawẽɹeɁ | |||
| 144 | 'abandon, give up, leave behind, let go, quit, release' | *-ahtkaɁw- | |||
| 145 | 'disappear, vanish' | *-ahtõ-, *-ahtõɁ- | |||
| 146 | 'hide' | *-ahtseht- | |||
| 147 | 'argue for, compete for, contend for, fight for' | *-ahtskehnh- | |||
| 148 | 'not yet, still' | *ahtsõh, *atsõh | |||
| 149 | 'night' | *-ahtsõːh- | |||
| 150 | 'connect, fasten, join together' | *-ahtsõtɹ- | |||
| 151 | 'be durable, be hard, be strong' | *-akanst-, *-anst-, *-kanst- | |||
| 152 | 'be a number, be an amount, be that many' | *-akeːh, *-keːh | |||
| 153 | 'be bad' | *-aksẽːh | |||
| 154 | 'cry' | *-anstaɹ- | |||
| 155 | 'outdoors, outside' | *ansteh | |||
| 156 | 'shoe' | *-aɹaːhsu- | |||
| 157 | 'be cousins' | *-aɹaɁtseːɁ | |||
| 158 | 'about, almost, approximately' | *aɹeɁ | |||
| 159 | 'be inside, be one, be present, be within, exist' | *-aːt | |||
| 160 | 'speak, talk' | *-atati-, *-atatj- | |||
| 161 | 'bathe, swim' | *-atawẽ- | |||
| 162 | 'climb over, go over' | *-atawẽːhɹat- | |||
| 163 | 'be ashamed, be embarrassed' | *-ateːhẽːh- | |||
| 164 | 'be burning, burn' | *-atek- | |||
| 165 | 'burn, cause to burn, light a fire' | *-atekaɁt- | |||
| 166 | 'use to light a fire' | *-atekaɁtahkw- | |||
| 167 | 'be a doctor, cure, heal' | *-atetsjẽɁt- | |||
| 168 | 'food taken along, provisions' | *-atẽnaɁtshɹ- | |||
| 169 | 'be a member of the Wolf Clan' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-athahjõniːh | |||
| 170 | 'be cold, be cold out, cold' | *-athoɹ-, *athoɁ | |||
| 171 | 'hear' | *-athõː- | |||
| 172 | 'garter' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-athsinh-, *-athsinhatshɹ- | |||
| 173 | 'be burnt, be consumed, be used up, burn, use oneself up' | *-athsɁaht- | |||
| 174 | 'abandon, throw, throw out' | *-ati-, *-atj-, *-õti-, *-õtj- | |||
| 175 | 'draw, pull, stretch' | *-atiɹõːt- | |||
| 176 | 'get dressed, put on' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-atjaɁtawiɁt- | |||
| 177 | 'harbour, hold back, keep' | *-atjenawahst- | |||
| 178 | 'be cheap, be easy, be profligate, squander' | *-atjets- | |||
| 179 | 'look at' | *-atkahthw- | |||
| 180 | 'purulence, pus' | *-atkẽhtsɹ- | |||
| 181 | 'be a sorceror, be a spirit, have inherent power' | *-atkõɁ | |||
| 182 | 'axe' | *atokẽɁ | |||
| 183 | 'spoon' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-atokw-, *-atokwaɁtshɹ- | |||
| 184 | 'hunt' | *-atoɹaːt- | |||
| 185 | 'breathe' | *-atõːɹ- | |||
| 186 | 'laugh, laugh out loud' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-atõtaɹikt- | |||
| 187 | 'meet, meet by chance' | *-atɹaɁ- | |||
| 188 | 'grandchild, have as grandchild' | *-atɹe- | |||
| 189 | 'be green, be new' | *-atseːɁ | |||
| 190 | 'be glad, be happy' | *-atshẽnõni- | |||
| 191 | 'dry out, dry up, evaporate, run dry' | *-atst-, *-atstathẽ- | |||
| 192 | 'abandon, lend, let go, spare' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-atwẽteht- | |||
| 193 | 'fence, palisade' | *-atɁẽhɹ- | |||
| 194 | 'belong to, own, possess' | *-awẽh | |||
| 195 | 'stir' | *-awẽɹi-, *-awẽɹj- | |||
| 196 | 'water' | *awẽɁ | |||
| 197 | 'be small' | *-aɁ-, *-aɁaːh | |||
| 198 | 'lace, net, netting, web' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-aɁaɹ- | |||
| 199 | 'dew' | *-aɁawj - | |||
| 200 | 'strike' | *-aɁe- | |||
| 201 | 'become dark, become night' | *-aɁkaɹaɁ-, *-aɁkɹaɁ- | |||
| 202 | 'snow, snowflake' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-aɁkɹ- | |||
| 203 | 'turtle' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-aɁnowaɹ-, *-Ɂnowaɹ- | |||
| 204 | 'be hot, be warm' | *-aɁtaɹihẽːh | |||
| 205 | 'heat, sweat' | *-aɁtaɹihẽhsɹ- | |||
| 206 | 'axe' | *-aɁtsɹ- | |||
| 207 | 'be extinguished, fire to go out' | *-aɁtsw- | |||
| 208 | 'extinguish, put out a fire' | *-aɁtswaht- | |||
| 209 | 'come, go, go on foot, walk' | *-e- | |||
| 210 | 'remember' | *-ehjahɹ- | |||
| 211 | 'believe, think' | *-eːɹ- | |||
| 212 | 'heart' | *-eɹjahs- | |||
| 213 | 'a lot, much' | *etsoɁ, *itsoɁ, *itswaɁ | |||
| 214 | 'above, high, over' | *eɁnkẽh, *heɁnkẽh | |||
| 215 | 'flower' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-ẽh- | |||
| 216 | 'day' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-ẽhnitsɹ- | |||
| 217 | 'be uncle to, have as nephew or niece' | *-ẽhwatẽɁ, *-jẽhwatẽɁ | |||
| 218 | 'be born, establish oneself' | *-ẽnakɹaːt- | |||
| 219 | 'day' | *-ẽt- | |||
| 220 | 'be finished, be over, be prepared, be ready, come to an end' | *-ẽtaɁ- | |||
| 221 | 'drop, fall' | *-ẽɁ- | |||
| 222 | 'nine' | *ẽɁtɹõɁ, *waɁtɹõh, *waɁtɹõɁ | |||
| 223 | 'council fire, flame, torch' | *-hahsɹ- | |||
| 224 | 'cornstalk, grass' | *-heɹ- | |||
| 225 | 'shout, yell' | *-hẽɹeht- | |||
| 226 | 'clearing, field, meadow' | *-hẽt- | |||
| 227 | 'mark, write' | *-hjatõ- | |||
| 228 | 'book, something marked, something written' | *-hjatõhsɹ- | |||
| 229 | 'claw' | *-hkaɹ- | |||
| 230 | 'current, moving water, rapids' | *-hnaw- | |||
| 231 | 'arm, shoulder' | *-hnẽː- | |||
| 232 | 'command, employ, hire' | *-hnhaɁ- | |||
| 233 | 'door' | *-hnhoh-, *-hnhohw- | |||
| 234 | 'close a door, door to be closed' | *-hnhotõ- | |||
| 235 | 'have jowls protruding' (> cattle, cow) | *-hnh(o/õ)hskʷ(a/e)ɹõːt | |||
| 236 | 'feed, put in the mouth' | *-hnhõtho-, *-hnhõthw- | |||
| 237 | 'be durable, be hard, be solid, be strong' | *-hniɹ- | |||
| 238 | 'thigh' | *-hnitsh- | |||
| 239 | 'neck, throat' | *-hnj- | |||
| 240 | 'tie' | *-hnɹ- | |||
| 241 | 'basswood' | *-hohsɹ-, *-hotsɹ- | |||
| 242 | 'bread' | *-hɹahkʷ- | |||
| 243 | 'feather' | *-hɹaɁt- | |||
| 244 | 'cut' | *-hɹen- | |||
| 245 | 'fall, fall over' | *-hɹjenẽɁ-, *-ɁɹhjenẽɁ- | |||
| 246 | 'tell' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-hɹoɹi-, *-hɹoɹj- | |||
| 247 | 'name, reputation' | *-hsẽn- | |||
| 248 | 'dough' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-hsheɁɹ-,-hsheɁɹh- | |||
| 249 | 'depression, depth, hole, hollow. | *-hshõw- | |||
| 250 | 'detest, dislike, hate' | *-hshwahẽ-, *-hshwẽ- | |||
| 251 | 'ankle, knee' | *-hsinkoɁt- | |||
| 252 | 'slow' | *-hskanẽ- | |||
| 253 | 'be good' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-hskaːths | |||
| 254 | 'deer' | *-hskẽnõtõɁ | |||
| 255 | 'bone' | *-hskẽɁɹ-; *-hskẽɁɹakeht- 'be a warrior', lit. 'carry the bone' | |||
| 256 | 'head' | *-hskʷ- | |||
| 257 | 'finger, hand' | *-hsnõhs-, *-hsnõɁ | |||
| 258 | 'be fast, be quick' | *-hsnuːɹiɁ | |||
| 259 | 'be ancestor to, be grandparent to' | *-hsoːt | |||
| 260 | 'build, make, prepare' | *-hsɹõːn- | |||
| 261 | 'use' | *-hst- | |||
| 262 | 'marrow' | *-hstahɹõw- | |||
| 263 | 'be little, be small' | *-hsthwih, *-hstwih | |||
| 264 | 'back' | *-hsw- | |||
| 265 | 'board, wood' | *-hswẽɁkaɹ-, *-hwẽɁkaɹ-, *-hwẽɁkhaɹ- | |||
| 266 | 'complete, exhaust, finish' | *-hsɁ-, *-ihsɁ- | |||
| 267 | 'have as older sibling, have as older maternal female cousin' | *-htsiɁ | |||
| 268 | 'colour, dye, paint' | *-htsuːhw- | |||
| 269 | 'family' | *-hwatsiɹ- | |||
| 270 | 'be round' | *-hweɁnõniːh | |||
| 271 | 'foam' | *-hwẽɁnst- | |||
| 272 | 'force, strength' | *-hwihsh- | |||
| 273 | 'five' | *hwihsk | |||
| 274 | 'metal, money' | *-hwihst- | |||
| 275 | 'be, be the one, exist' | *-iː- | |||
| 276 | 'be dead, die' | *-ihej- | |||
| 277 | 'cross over' | *-ihjaɁk-, *-jahjaɁk- | |||
| 278 | 'creek, river' | *-ijhõh-, *-ijhõhw-, *-wjhõh- | |||
| 279 | 'be beautiful, be good, be great' | *-ijoːh | |||
| 280 | 'emerge, go out, put out' | *-inkẽɁ- | |||
| 281 | 'far' | *iːnõh | |||
| 282 | 'mattress, sheet, spread' | *-inskaɹ- | |||
| 283 | 'be sitting, sit' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-inskoːt | |||
| 284 | 'saliva, spit, spittle' | *-inskɹ- | |||
| 285 | 'fish scale' | *-inst- | |||
| 286 | 'cliff, rock, rock bank' | *-instẽhɹ-, *-nstẽhɹ- | |||
| 287 | 'sleep' | *-itaɁw-, *-itɁo- | |||
| 288 | 'crowd, group' | *-itjohkʷ- | |||
| 289 | 'you' | *iːts | |||
| 290 | 'shoot' | *-iɁaːk-, *-iɁjaːk-, *-Ɂjaːk- | |||
| 291 | 'clan, clay, hearth' | *-iɁtaɹ-, *-Ɂtaɹ- | |||
| 292 | 'abide, dwell, reside, sit' | *-iɁtɹõ- | |||
| 293 | 'exit, go out, leave' | *-jakẽɁ- | |||
| 294 | 'footprint, gait, track' | *-jan- | |||
| 295 | 'be a chief, be good, be lawful, be proper' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-janɹ- | |||
| 296 | 'law' | *-janɹehsɹ-, *-janrẽhsɹ- | |||
| 297 | 'break, cut' | *-jaɁk- | |||
| 298 | 'being, body, carcass, corpse, person' | *-jaɁt- | |||
| 299 | 'wake up' | *-je- | |||
| 300 | 'add, contribute, mix' | *-jehst- | |||
| 301 | 'capture, catch, grab' | *-jena-, *-jenaw- | |||
| 302 | 'act, do, happen to' | *-jeɹ- | |||
| 303 | 'be complete, be just, be perfect, be right' | *-jeɹi- | |||
| 304 | 'body' | *-jeːɹõɁ- | |||
| 305 | 'smile' | *-jeːts- | |||
| 306 | 'be situated, exist, have, put down, set down, sit down' | *-jẽ- | |||
| 307 | 'hit, strike' | *-jẽht- | |||
| 308 | 'firewood, wood' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-jẽt- | |||
| 309 | 'accumulate, beget, get, obtain' | *-jẽtaɁ- | |||
| 310 | 'know' | *-jẽteɹ- | |||
| 311 | 'plant, sow' | *-jẽtho-, *-jẽthw- | |||
| 312 | 'flay, skin' | *-jẽtsɹ- | |||
| 313 | 'have as child' | *-jẽɁ- | |||
| 314 | 'smoke, tobacco' | *-jẽɁkʷ- | |||
| 315 | 'enter' | *-jõ- | |||
| 316 | 'eat' | *-k- | |||
| 317 | 'butterfly' | *kahnaːwẽːh | |||
| 318 | 'look at' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-kahnɹ- | |||
| 319 | 'eye' | *-kahɹ- | |||
| 320 | 'four' | *kajeɹih | |||
| 321 | 'be old' | *-kajõ- | |||
| 322 | 'anywhere, somewhere' (limited to Iroquoia) | *kankaɁ | |||
| 323 | 'pipe' | *kanõːnowẽɁ | |||
| 324 | 'bite' | *-kaɹ- | |||
| 325 | 'account, price, story' | *-kaɹ- | |||
| 326 | 'roll, turn around' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-kaɹhateni-, *-kaɹhatenj- | |||
| 327 | 'invert, roll over, turn over' | *-kaɹhatho-, *-kaɹhathw- | |||
| 328 | 'tree' | *kaɹhit, *keɹhit, *keɹhiɁ, *kɹaheːt, *kɹahit | |||
| 329 | 'come here!' | *katsih | |||
| 330 | 'paddle, row' | *-kaweː- | |||
| 331 | 'lift, raise' | *-kensko-, *-kenskʷ- | |||
| 332 | 'see' | *-kẽ-, *-kẽːh | |||
| 333 | 'be old' | *-kẽhtsi- | |||
| 334 | 'summer' | *-kẽnh- | |||
| 335 | 'be white' | *-kẽɹat | |||
| 336 | 'peel, scrape' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-kẽtsɹ- | |||
| 337 | 'divide, separate' | *-kh-, *-khahsi-, *-khahsj-, *-khahsk- | |||
| 338 | 'elbow' | *-khjuːhs- | |||
| 339 | 'food, meal' | *-khw- | |||
| 340 | 'chipmunk' | *kihɹjuɁkẽh | |||
| 341 | 'dog' | *kiːɹ | |||
| 342 | 'hair' | *-kiɁɹh- | |||
| 343 | 'crow' | *koːhkaːɁ | |||
| 344 | 'be a lot, be many, be much' | *-koɁtiɁ | |||
| 345 | 'face' | *-kõːhs- | |||
| 346 | 'eel' | *kõteh | |||
| 347 | 'bowl, dish, plate' | *-kts- | |||
| 348 | 'acorn, oak' | *kuːɹeh | |||
| 349 | 'be big, be large' | *-kuwa-, *-kʷa- | |||
| 350 | 'pick up' | *-kʷ- | |||
| 351 | 'be able' | *-kʷeni-, *-kʷenj- | |||
| 352 | 'that, the, this' | *nV(H) | |||
| 353 | 'domestic animal, prisoner, slave' | *-nahskʷ- | |||
| 354 | 'be autochthonous, dwell, reside' | *-nakɹ- | |||
| 355 | 'bed, place, room, space' | *-nakt-, *-nakʷt- | |||
| 356 | 'camp, city, settlement, town, village' | *-nat- | |||
| 357 | 'grain, wheat' | *-natsj- | |||
| 358 | 'be melted, be warm, be wet' | *-nawẽːh | |||
| 359 | 'antler, horn' | *-naɁkaɹ- | |||
| 360 | 'imitate' | *-naɁkeɹ- | |||
| 361 | 'bread' | *-naɁtaɹ- | |||
| 362 | 'call' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-naɁtõhkʷ- | |||
| 363 | 'cauldron, kettle, pail, pot' | *-naɁtsj- | |||
| 364 | 'liquid' | *-neː- | |||
| 365 | 'ice' | *-neːhst-, *-neːhstwaɹ | |||
| 366 | 'corn, grain, kernel' | *-nẽh- | |||
| 367 | 'now' | *nẽh | |||
| 368 | 'steal' | *-nẽːhskʷ- | |||
| 369 | 'sand; stone' | *-nẽːj- | |||
| 370 | 'arm' | *-nẽtsh- | |||
| 371 | 'be stingy' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-niɁ- | |||
| 372 | 'marry' | *-njaːk- | |||
| 373 | 'neck' | *-njaɹ- | |||
| 374 | 'lake' | *-njataɹ- | |||
| 375 | 'wampum' | *-nkoɁɹ-, *-nkoɁɹh- | |||
| 376 | 'blood' | *-nkõ-, *-nkʷẽhs- | |||
| 377 | 'red' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-nkʷẽhtaɹ- | |||
| 378 | 'begin to snow' | *-nkʷẽɁ- | |||
| 379 | 'be cold' | *-noːh | |||
| 380 | 'tooth' | *-noɁts-, *-noɁtsj- | |||
| 381 | 'medicine' | *-nõhkʷ-, *-nõhkʷaɁt-, *-nõhkʷaɁtshɹ- | |||
| 382 | 'house' | *-nõhs- | |||
| 383 | 'be painful, be sore, hurt' | *-nõhwakt- | |||
| 384 | 'admire, like' | *-nõhweɁ- | |||
| 385 | 'hill, mountain' | *-nõt- | |||
| 386 | 'corn soup, hominy' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-nõtaɹ- | |||
| 387 | 'brain, head' | *-nõːtsiː- | |||
| 388 | 'breast, milk' | *-nõɁt- | |||
| 389 | 'fungus, mushroom' | *-nɹahs- | |||
| 390 | 'leaf' | *-nɹaht- | |||
| 391 | 'get involved, help' | *-nsteːɹ- | |||
| 392 | 'corn husk' | *-nuːɹ- | |||
| 393 | 'be difficult, be unable to, fail to do' | *-nuːɹõ- | |||
| 394 | 'winter, year' | *-ohsɹ- | |||
| 395 | 'throw' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-ojɁaːk- | |||
| 396 | 'split' | *-oɹẽ- | |||
| 397 | 'be, be standing, exist, stand upright' | *-oːt | |||
| 398 | 'be at the end, end' | *-oɁkt- | |||
| 399 | 'dig' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-oɁkʷaːt- | |||
| 400 | 'hand' | *-oɁnj- | |||
| 401 | 'be of a kind, be of a sort' | *-oɁtẽːh | |||
| 402 | 'earth, land, world' | *-õhwẽtsj- | |||
| 403 | 'go beyond, go through, leak, pass through, penetrate, reach' | *-õːkuːh- | |||
| 404 | 'sift' | *-õːkuːhst- | |||
| 405 | 'be a person, human being' | *-õkʷeh, *-õkʷehsɹ-, *-õkʷeɁt- | |||
| 406 | 'be alive, life, live' | *-õːnh- | |||
| 407 | 'rain' | *-õnoːt- | |||
| 408 | 'pot' | *-õːt- | |||
| 409 | 'put into the fire' | *-õːt- | |||
| 410 | 'be attached, have as a body part' | *-õːt | |||
| 411 | 'remove from the fire' | *-õːtakʷ- | |||
| 412 | 'be a lake, lake' | *-õːtaɹiɁ | |||
| 413 | 'be in, be on' | *-ɹ- | |||
| 414 | 'moon to be present, planet to be present, sun to be present' | *-ɹ- | |||
| 415 | 'moon, planet, sun' | *-ɹahkʷ- | |||
| 416 | 'erase, rub out, wipe out' | *-ɹakew- | |||
| 417 | 'choose, pick out, select' | *-ɹako-, *-ɹakw- | |||
| 418 | 'sap, syrup' | *-ɹan- | |||
| 419 | 'heel' | *-ɹat- | |||
| 420 | 'climb' | *-ɹathẽ-, *-ɹaɁthẽ- | |||
| 421 | 'adhere, stick, stick on' | *-ɹaɁnẽtaːk- | |||
| 422 | 'incantation, song, spell, witchcraft' | *-ɹẽn- | |||
| 423 | 'bush, forest, woods' | *-ɹhat- | |||
| 424 | 'coat with, put on' | *-ɹho- | |||
| 425 | 'be paternal aunt to' | *-ɹhok | |||
| 426 | 'socks, leggings' | *-ɹiː- | |||
| 427 | 'affair, business, thing, matter' | *-ɹihw- | |||
| 428 | 'fight, kill' | *-ɹijo-, *-ɹjo- | |||
| 429 | 'animal' | *-ɹjoːɁ | |||
| 430 | 'blue, sky' | *-ɹõhj- | |||
| 431 | 'log, tree' | *-ɹõt- | |||
| 432 | 'chop' | *-ɹɁo-, *-ɹɁok- | |||
| 433 | 'be present, exist' | *-t- | |||
| 434 | 'and, besides' | *tahnũɁ | |||
| 435 | 'run' | *-takh- | |||
| 436 | 'woodpecker' | *taɹaːɹ | |||
| 437 | 'flint' | *tawiːhskaɹaɁ | |||
| 438 | 'two' | *tekniːh | |||
| 439 | 'eight' | *tekɹõɁ | |||
| 440 | 'change' | *-teni-, *-tenj- | |||
| 441 | 'mosquito' | *-tẽːhs- | |||
| 442 | 'alternate, differ' | *-tih- | |||
| 443 | 'skunk' | *tiɁɹ | |||
| 444 | 'nearby' | tjohskẽẽɁ | |||
| 445 | 'snake' | tjoɁxjẽtsihk | |||
| 446 | 'decay, rot, spoil' | *-tkẽː- | |||
| 447 | 'how, how many, how much' (limited to Iroquoia) | *toːh | |||
| 448 | 'be certain, be exact, be true' | *-tokẽːh | |||
| 449 | 'stand' | *-toɁn- | |||
| 450 | 'bluejay' (limited to Iroquoia) | *tɹiɁtɹiːɁ | |||
| 451 | 'beans' | *tsaheɁ, *-tsaheɁt- | |||
| 452 | 'bottle, gourd, jar' | *-tsheɁ, *-tsheɁt-, *-tsheɁw- | |||
| 453 | 'club, fist, knot' | *-tsihkʷ- | |||
| 454 | 'robin' | *tsiːhskʷoːɁkʷoːɁ | |||
| 455 | 'otter, seal' | *tsiːjẽh | |||
| 456 | 'salt' | *-tsikheɁt- | |||
| 457 | 'be male' | *-tsin | |||
| 458 | 'fire' | *-tsiːɹ | |||
| 459 | 'coal, ember, fire, spark' | *-tsist- | |||
| 460 | 'fox, lynx' | *tsitshoɁ | |||
| 461 | 'bile, green, yellow' | *-tsiɁnkʷaɹ- | |||
| 462 | 'bird' | *tsiɁtẽɁ | |||
| 463 | 'corn tassel' | *-tsiːɁtsiːɁ | |||
| 464 | 'seven' | *tsjatahk | |||
| 465 | 'tobacco' | *-tsjoːɹ- | |||
| 466 | 'six; seven' | *tsjotaɹeɁ | |||
| 467 | 'fish' | *-tsjõɁt- | |||
| 468 | 'be daughter-in-law' | *-tsoɁ | |||
| 469 | 'dream, sleep' | *-tsɹẽht- | |||
| 470 | 'put into the water' | *-uː- | |||
| 471 | 'remove from the water' | *-uːkʷ- | |||
| 472 | 'cover' | *-uːɹ- | |||
| 473 | 'splash water, sprinkle' | *-uːtsɹ- | |||
| 474 | 'whippoorwill' | *waɁkuhɹiːɁ | |||
| 475 | 'say, speak' | *-we- | |||
| 476 | 'language, voice, word' | *-wẽn- | |||
| 477 | 'thumb' (limited to Iroquoia) | *-whjõhkaɹ- | |||
| 478 | 'young person' | *-wiːnõːh | |||
| 479 | 'baby, child, infant, offspring' | *-wiɹ- | |||
| 480 | 'arm, fin, wing' | *-wj- | |||
| 481 | 'wing' | *-wjahũtsh- | |||
| 482 | 'learn, teach' | *-wjẽhst- | |||
| 483 | 'know how, learn how' | *-wjẽhw-, *-wjẽw-, *-wjẽɁ- | |||
| 484 | 'craft, manner, skill, way' | *-wjẽn- | |||
| 485 | 'become capable, learn how' | *-wjʌ̃tehtaɁ- | |||
| 486 | 'be good' | *-wohst | |||
| 487 | 'air, wind' | *-wɹ- | |||
| 488 | 'arrow' | *-Ɂn- | |||
| 489 | 'bone' | *-Ɂnẽj- | |||
| 490 | 'egg' | *-Ɂnhõhs- | |||
| 491 | 'mind, spirit' | *-Ɂnikõhɹ- | |||
| 492 | 'be late, delay' | *-Ɂnitsko-, *-Ɂnitskʷ- | |||
| 493 | 'escape, flee, run away' | *-ɁnjakẽɁ- | |||
| 494 | 'nose' | *-Ɂnjõːhs- | |||
| 495 | 'be envious, be jealous, envy' | *-Ɂnonsh- | |||
| 496 | 'be powerful, be strong' | *-Ɂnshanst- | |||
| 497 | 'drown, fall into water' | *-ɁtskoɁ- | |||
| 498 | 'drag, drive, pull, ride' | *-Ɂtsɹ- |
gollark: Yes. That is definitely the case.
gollark: <:bees:724389994663247974> it, this is a hard problem.
gollark: Ohhhhh, homoglyphs.
gollark: ++delete do not
gollark: ++delete do
References
 |
Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at Appendix:Proto-Iroquoian reconstructions |
- Julian (2010), p. 21.
- Julian, Charles (2010). A History of the Iroquoian Languages (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of Manitoba.
- Barbeau, Marius. (1960). Huron-Wyandot Traditional Narratives in Translations and Native Texts. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 165, Anthropological Series No. 47.
- Chafe, Wallace. (1977a). "Accent and Related Phenomena in the Five Nations Iroquois Languages". In Larry Hyman, ed. Studies in Stress and Accent, 169-181. Southern California Occasional Papers in Linguistics 4.
- Michelson, Karin. (1988). A Comparative Study of Lake-Iroquoian Accent. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
- Rudes, Blair. (1995). "Iroquoian Vowels". Anthropological Linguistics 37: 16-69.
- Lounsbury, Floyd. (1961). Iroquois-Cherokee Linguistic Relations. In William Fenton and John Gulick, eds. Symposium on Cherokee and Iroquois Culture. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 180, 11-17.
- Lounsbury, Floyd G. (1978). "Iroquoian Languages". in Bruce G. Trigger (ed.). Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15: Northeast. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 334–343. OCLC 12682465.
- Mooney, James. (1900). Myths of the Cherokee. 19th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part 1, 3-548. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
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