Paradisus Judaeorum

Paradisus Judaeorum is a Latin phrase which became one of four members of a popular 19th-century Polish-language saying describing the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) as "heaven for the nobility, purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants, paradise for Jews".[2][lower-alpha 1] The earliest written attestation is an anonymous 1606 Latin pasquinade that begins, "Regnum Polonorum est". In 1937 Stanisław Kot surmised that its author may have been a Catholic priest who found fault with what he regarded as the disarray of the realm;[4] the text excoriates virtually all classes of society.[5][6][7]

"Jewish Paradise" and related terms redirect here; it is not to be confused with Heaven in Judaism.

1606 Latin pasquinade containing the phrase Paradisus Judaeorum. The text's occasion was a celebration of the December 1605 wedding of Sigismund III Vasa and Constance of Austria.[1]

The phrase "Paradisus Iudaeorum" was singled out by the POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews for a gallery ending in a "Corridor of Fire symbolis[ing] the Khmelnytsky Uprising" (1648-1657). Mikołaj Gliński says Jews consider that event to have been "the biggest national catastrophe since the destruction of Solomon's Temple."[8]

Some have read the noun phrase as a straightforward observation on the position of Jews in Poland: in the 17th century, Poland was notable for its tolerance toward most religious groups, while Jews faced persecution elsewhere in Europe.[9][10] Others read the reference as openly antisemitic, surmising that its author felt that the Jews were overprivileged in Poland.[lower-alpha 2]

History of versions

The Polish literary historian Stanisław Kot has provided the earliest printed attestation of part of the saying — "purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants, and paradise for Jews" — in an anonymous 1606 Latin[13] text, one of two that are jointly known by the Polish title, Paskwiliusze na królewskim weselu podrzucone ("Pasquinades Planted at Royal Wedding Celebration"), in reference to the wedding of Sigismund III Vasa and Constance of Austria that had taken place on 11 December 1605.[1]

Of the two texts attributed to the same anonymous author, the part that became the proverb appeared in the "Regnum Polonorum est" ("The Kingdom of Poland Is").[lower-alpha 3] Parts of the text were quoted in Bishop Stanisław Zremba's 1623 work, "Okulary na rozchody w Koronie..."[13] and were included in a 1636 work by Szymon Starowolski.[15] The phrase, "heaven for the nobility", which became a regular part of the proverb, was added by the German Jesuit priest Michael Radau in his 1672 work, Orator extemporeneus; Polish-literature scholar Julian Krzyżanowski suggests that Radau had coined this phrase as early as 1641.[13]

Several variants of the 1606 pasquinade appeared in shorter Latin versions, by the Croat Juraj Križanić (1664)[16], the Italian Giovan Battista Pacichelli (1685),[17] and the Slovak Daniel Krman (1708-9).[18]

Kot thinks that the anonymous author of the 1606 pasquinade may have been inspired by examples of proverbs from other European countries.[19] Sixteenth-century England was depicted as "the paradise of women, the hell of horses, and the purgatory of servants".[20][21] Variants of this described France and Italy.

The first translation of the 1606 Polish pasquinade from the Latin into Polish appeared in the 1630s. Kot translated it in 1937.[14]

Pasquinade

The identity of the author is unknown. Kot wrote that he may have been a Catholic townsman, perhaps a priest,r jealous of the influence of Jews and others, such as Protestants and nobility, who somehow competed with Catholic townspeople.[4][22] Konrad Matyjaszek describes it as "expressing anti-gentry and anti-Jewish sentiments".[12] According to Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, it was political satire, "a pasquinade critical of everything in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth—foreigners, immigrants, 'heretics,' peasants, burgers, and servants, and also Jews."[lower-alpha 4] Kot writes that other versions in the 17th and 18th centuries criticized the clergy, Gypsies, Italians, Germans, Armenians, and Scots: groups were added or removed from the list, depending on the authors' allegiances.[lower-alpha 5]

Krzyżanowski sees the 1606 text as a satire on all of Polish society.[13] Some 17th- and 18th-century Polish authors, themselves either nobles or clients of the nobility, saw it as an attack on the nobility's Golden Freedoms and ascribed it to a foreign author, refusing to accept that a scathing criticism of Polish society could come from a Polish author. Kot writes that the pasquinades are some of the most pointed examples of self-criticism originating in Polish society, and that the nobility's refusal to accept that such criticism could come from within that society reflects sadly on the deterioration of Polish discourse in the 18th and 19th centuries.[lower-alpha 6]

Saying

Over time, the 1606 pasquinade lapsed into obscurity, reduced to the popular proverb.[2][22][27] The proverb contrasts the disparate situations of four social classes in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The privileged nobility (szlachta) are at the top ("heaven for the nobility"), and the impoverished, usually enserfed peasantry are at the bottom ("hell for peasants"). The other two commonly named classes are the townspeople (or burghers) and the Jews. By the 16th century, the position of townspeople in the Commonwealth had been in decline (hence, "purgatory for townspeople"). The situation of the Commonwealth's Jews, while similar to that of the townspeople, was fairly secure and prosperous, particularly compared to the situation of Jews in most other European countries.[28][29] Due to its criticism of the nobility, the proverb was most popular among townspeople; much less so among the nobility, whose writers, if they referred to it, used it mainly in the context of Polish Jewry.[26] The proverb has been described as still (as of 2004) very popular in Poland, and as often influencing people's views about the situation of the social classes, particularly the Jews, in the Commonwealth.[22]

Paradisus Judaeorum

The origin of the phrase "paradisus Judaeorum" ("paradise of the Jews") has been described as antisemitic, and the 1606 pasquinade's author as having viewed Poland as being run by overprivileged Jews.[lower-alpha 2] In the centuries since, the phrase has lost its negative connotations and has been used to refer to the golden age of Jewish life in Poland.[28][30][31][32][33] The sixteenth-century rabbi Moses Isserles wrote a friend who had become a rabbi in Germany: "You would be better off living with us in Poland on stale bread if need be, but safe".[lower-alpha 7] John Klier titled a chapter in his book about Eastern European Jewish history "Poland-Lithuania: 'Paradise for Jews'".[35]

Gershon Hundert writes: "The Polish Jewish community was vibrant, creative, proud and self-confident [...]. Their neighbours knew this as well, referring to Poland as Paradisus Judaeorum [...]. The full expression went: 'Poland is heaven for the nobility, hell for the peasants and paradise for Jews'."[36] The comparison has generally been described as exaggerated (Hundert himself writes that it was hyperbole[36]), as the Jewish situation in early modern Poland, while comparatively privileged compared to many other classes in the Commonwealth, and to the Jewish position in many other contemporary countries, was hardly idyllic.[28][29][37][30][22] Norman Davies says Jews "were widely denounced as the chosen instrument of 'the Polish lords'" in Ukraine.[38]

Paradisus Iudaeorum (Jewish Paradise) gallery, POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews, Warsaw, Poland

In the POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews that opened in Warsaw in 2013, a gallery covering the "Golden Age of Polish Jewry" was named, "Paradisus Iudaeorum".[39] The gallery's name became a subject of discussion when in 2016 Joanna Tokarska-Bakir argued that its use for the gallery was disrespectful.[8][6] Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Program Director of the Core Exhibition of the POLIN Museum, says that the intention is to engage the reader in a complex debate going beyond a binary black-and-white oversimplification.[23] In 2017 Kamil Kijek wrote that, out of context, the phrase can indeed be confusing, but within a broader context it is representative of a much more complex, nuanced relationship between Jews and non-Jewish Poles.[40]

Latin texts

Year	Author	Text	Translation	Notes
1606	Anonymous[5]	Regnum Polonorum est paradisus Judaeorum infernus rusticorum purgatorium Plebeiorum Dominatus famulorum confusio personarum luxus foeminarum frequentia nundinarum aurifodinae advenarum Cleri lenta praessura Evangelicorum impostura libertas prodigorum prostitutio morum pincerna potatorum perpetua peregrinatio assidua hospitatio juris inquietatio consiliorum manifestatio aquisitorum injuriatio Legum variatio quam videt omnis natio	The Kingdom of Poland is paradise for Jews hell for peasants purgatory for townspeople ascendance of courtiers confusion of roles looseness of women loitering at markets goldmine for foreigners oppression of clergy Protestant impostures freedom for wastrels prostitution of morals cupbearer to drunkards perpetual peregrination constant entertaining law-breaking disclosure of counsels disregard for acquisitions variance of laws as all the people see.	Given the Polish title Paskwiliusze na królewskim weselu podrzucone.[22] Also appears in Szymon Starowolski in 1636.[15]
1664	Juraj Križanić[16]	Polonia est Nova Babylonia, Tsiganorum, Germanorum, Armenorum et Scotorum colonia; Paradisus Hebraeorum, infernus rusticorum; aurifodina advenarum, sedes gentium vagabundarum; comitiatorum assidua hospitatio, populi perpetua inquietatio, alienigenarum dominatio. Quam despuit omnis natio.	Poland is the new Babylon, a colony of Gypsies, Germans, Armenians, and Scots; paradise for Hebrews, hell for peasants; goldmine for foreigners, seat of vagabonds; the courtiers' constant entertaining, the people's perpetual disquiet, domination by foreigners. Which disturbs all the people.
1672	Michael Radau[13]	Clarum Regnum Polonorum est coelum nobiliorum, paradisus Judaeorum, purgatorium plebejorum, et infernum rusticorum...	The illustrious Kingdom of Poland is heaven for the nobility, paradise for Jews, purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants...
1685	Giovan Battista Pacichelli[17]	Clarum regnum Polonorum Est coelum nobiliorum, Infernus rusticorum, Paradisus Judaeorum, Aurifodina advenarum, Causa luxus foeminarum. Multo quidem dives lanis, Semper tamen egens pannis; Et copiam in lino serit, Sed externas diligit; Caro emptis gloriatur, Empta parvo aspernatur.	The illustrious Kingdom of Poland is heaven for the nobility, hell for peasants, paradise for Jews, goldmine for foreigners, cause of looseness of women. Much productive of wool, always nevertheless in need of clothes; though it produces copious linen, yet it loves the foreign; it prizes what is bought dear, disdaining what is bought cheap.
1708–1709	Daniel Krman[18]	Clarum regnum Polonorum est coelum nobiliorum, paradisus Judaeorum, purgatorium plebeiorum et infernus rusticorum, causa luxus foeminarum, multis quidem dives lanis, semper tamen egens pannis, et copiam lini serit, sed externam telam quaerit, merces externas diligit, domi paratas negligit, caro emptis gloriatur, empta parvo adspernatur.	The illustrious Kingdom of Poland is heaven for the nobility, paradise for Jews, purgatory for townspeople, and hell for peasants, cause of looseness of women, much productive of wool, always nevertheless in need of clothes, though it produces copious linen, yet it seeks foreign fabric, it loves foreign goods, it neglects domestic products, it prizes what is bought dear, disdaining what is bought cheap.

Notes

1. Julian Krzyżanowski (1958): "Polska była niebem dla szlachty, czyścem dla mieszczan, piekłem dla chłopów, a rajem dla Żydów."[3]
2. Antony Polonsky (Studia Litteraria et Historica, 2017): "The initial part of this gallery [in the POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews] features a set of quotations that show that it [Poland] was not a Paradisus Judaeorum, that this was a mere slogan ...[11]
   Konrad Matyjaszek: "The content of the 17th century text which the notion Paradisus is taken from is not problematized there. It is not explained that the text is antisemitic."[11]
   "The term Paradisus Judaeorum [Paradise for Jews] has been present in Polish culture since the 17th century. It comes from an anonymous text expressing anti-gentry and anti-Jewish sentiments, which was published in Latin in 1606 and titled Paskwiliusze na królewskim weselu podrzucone [Lampoons planted at the royal wedding party]. The anonymous writer uses the phrase Paradisus Judaeorum to express his conviction that Poland is ruled by Jews and that they enjoy excessive privileges (Kot, 1937; Tokarska-Bakir, 2004, p. 54)" (square brackets in original).[12]
3. Stanisław Kot (1937): " ... dwa krótkie utwory łacińskie, które odtad spotykamy razem w kopu rękopisach i drukach, często nawet złaczone w jedna całość .... W rękopisie Czartoryskich ... dano im wspólny tytuł: 'Pasquilllusze na królewskim weselu podrzucone.' ... I drugi utwór, 'Regnum Polonorum' ... stwierdza ... pomyślność Żydów".[14]
4. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett (The Polish Review, 2016): "Similarly, the Wall of Words in the Paradisus Iudaeorum gallery (1569–1648) is a kind of chorus, sometimes in harmony, sometimes cacophonous. The quotations here play on the ambiguity of 'Paradisus Iudaeorum,' a formulation from a pasquinade critical of everything in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth—foreigners, immigrants, 'heretics,' peasants, burgers, and servants, and also Jews. To characterize the Commonwealth as a Jewish paradise is a way of saying that Jews had it 'too good.' The Wall of Words, by assembling different perspectives, invites the visitor to consider to what extent and in what ways the Commonwealth was good for the Jews or bad for the Jews, worse for the Jews or better—and above all introduces the idea of a spectrum of relations, rather than a binary of good or bad. Our multivoiced approach and authored voices are critical to the openness of the narration and therefore to the openness of the historical narrative."[23]
5. Stanisław Kot (1937): "Zaznaczyliśmy już, że w miarę lat i szerzenia się odpisów, satyra ulegała odmianie" (p. 11); "widać więc, że autor, choć katolik, nie lubi Włochów" (p. 12); "Inaczej oczywiście przekształcać musiał teksty protestantów ... usnięto więc zwrot o oszukaństwie ewangelików, przenosząc ten brzydki zwrot na cyganów a dodając chciwość kleru" (p. 12); "Jeszcze samodzielniej przerabiał satyrę na Polskę panslawista Chorwat ... Juraj Križanić  ... entuzjastę słowiańszczyzny raził, jak widać, w Polsce nadmiar cudzoziemców i ich wpływy: Cyganów, Niemców, Ormian, Szkotów i Żydów, skąd Polska przedstawia się jako siedziba włóczęgów" (pp. 12–13). ("We have already mentioned that with the years, as copies spread, the satire underwent changes" [p. 11]; "the author, though a Catholic, does not like Italians" [p. 12]; "Of course, he had to reshape the Protestants' texts differently... so the phrase about Protestant impostures was removed, transferring the odious phrase to the Gypsies and adding the greed of the clergy" [p. 12]; "The satire on Poland was reshaped even more independently by the Panslavist Croat... Juraj Križanić... the devotee of Slavdom was evidently bothered by the superabundance of foreigners in Poland and by their influences: Gypsies, Germans, Armenians, Scots, and Jews, giving Poland the aspect of a seat of vagabonds". [pp. 12-13].)[24]
6. Stanisław Kot (1937): "W miarę jak opinia szlachecka coraz bardziej zwracała się przeciwko wszelkiej krytyce i tylko na pochwały nadstawiała ucho coraz trudniej było publicystom przytaczać tak gorzką satyrę. ... I nie wypadało przypuścić, aby jej autorem mógł być Polak (p. 16). Podkreślmy, że te cudzoziemskie nazwiska autorów i ich dzieł są to fikcje ... Pęski uważał, że dogodniej mu wprowadzić do dyskusji owe zarzuty jako rozgłaszane przez cudzoziemców, niż gdyby im przyznał polskie pochodzenie. Zmyślił więc nazwiska autorów i dzieł (p. 19) ... Dla ludzi XVIII wieku satyra nasza uchodziła już tylko za utwór obserwatorów cudzoziemskich (p. 27)."[25]
   "Omawiane powyżej satyry ... nie były u szlachty popularne. ... kierowały całe swoje ostrze przeciwko szlachcie. Sa one jednym z najdosadniejszych wyrazów autokrytki życia społecznego i gospodarczego, moralnego i politycznego w Polsce. Ale po [Starowolskim] nikt już nie podejmie ani gospodarczo-społecznej krytki ani sprawy polskiej. Jedynie tylko dyskusja żydowska jako najmniej obrażająca szlachtę, będzie odtąd nawiązywać do naszych satyr. I to jeszcze z zastrzeżeniem, iż podaje się je wyłącznie jako produkt cudzoziemski, jako złośliwe uwagi obcych o stosunkach polskich; uznać ich za wytwór samokrytyki polskiej już nie wypadało."[26]
7. Moses Isserles: "Byłoby Ci lepiej życ u nas w Polsce choćby o suchym chlebie ale bezpiecznie." [You would be better off living with us in Poland on stale bread if need be, but safe.] ... "Stare łacińskie przysłowie brzmi: 'Polska jest niebem szlachty, czyśćcem mieszczan, piekłem chłopów i rajem Żydów'." [An old Latin proverb reads: 'Poland is heaven for the nobility, purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants, and paradise for Jews.'][34]

References

1. Kot 1937, p. 2: "W rękopisie Czartoryskich ... dano im wspólny tytuł: 'Pasquilliusze na królewskim weselu podrzucone'. Jest to wiadomość, której mie było by powodu poddawać w wątpliwość. Wszak ślub Zygmunta III z Konstancją Austriaczką odbył się 11 grudnia 1605, zatem rzecz zupełnie naturalna, że utwór plątający się wśród wierszy rokoszowych z 1606 rozrzucany był właśnie podczas źle widzianego w społeczeństwie wesela." ("In the Czartoryskis' manuscript, they were given a joint title: Pasquilliusze na królewskim weselu podrzucone ["Pasquinades Planted at Royal Wedding Celebration"]. There is no reason to doubt the information. The wedding of Zygmunt III and Constance of Austria took place on 11 December 1605, and so it is quite natural that a piece of writing, mixed in with rokosz verses of 1606 [when the Zebrzydowski rebellion against the King began] was scattered about during a wedding celebration that was ill-viewed in society.")
2. Gromelski, Tomasz (2013). "Liberty and liberties in early modern Poland-Lithuania". In Skinner, Quentin; Gelderen, Martin van (eds.). Freedom and the Construction of Europe. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 233 (215–234). ISBN 978-1-107-03307-8.
3. Krzyżanowski, Julian (1958). Mądrej głowie dość dwie słowie: Trzy wieki przysłów polskich [Word to the Wise: Three centuries of Polish proverbs]. Warsawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy. p. 435.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
4. Kot, Stanisław (1937). Polska rajem dla Żydów, piekłem dla chłopów, niebem dla szlachty [Poland: paradise for Jews, hell for peasants, heaven for the nobility]. Warszawa: Kultura i Nauka. p. 6. OCLC 459874686.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
5. "Regnum Polonorum est: Paradisus Judaeorum, infernus rusticorum". Wielkopolska Digital Library.
6. Tokarska-Bakir, Joanna (28 December 2016). "Polin: 'Ultimate Lost Object'". Studia Litteraria et Historica. 5 (5): 7 (1–8). doi:10.11649/slh.2016.002.
7. Krzyżanowski 1958, p. 436.
8. Mikołaj Gliński (27 October 2014). "A Virtual Visit to the Museum of the History of Polish Jews". Culture.pl. Retrieved 2018-09-25.
9. Covington, Coline (2017). Everyday Evils: A Psychoanalytic View of Evil and Morality. Abingdon and New York: Routledge. p. 122, note 1. ISBN 978-1-317-59304-1.
10. Engel, David (2012). "Salo Baron's View of the Middle Ages in Jewish History: Early Sources". In Engel, David; Schiffman, Lawrence H.; Wolfson, Elliot R. (eds.). Studies in Medieval Jewish Intellectual and Social History: Festschrift in Honor of Robert Chazan. Leiden: BRILL. p. 313 (299–316). ISBN 978-90-04-22233-5.
11. Matyjaszek, Konrad (2017). "'You need to speak Polish': Antony Polonsky in an interview with Konrad Matyjaszek". Studia Litteraria et Historica (6): 10. doi:10.11649/slh.1706.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
12. Matyjaszek 2017, p. 10, note 21.
13. Krzyżanowski 1958, pp. 435–437.
14. Kot 1937, pp. 2–5.
15. Starowolski, Szymon (1636). Stacye zołnierskie: Abo W wyćiągániu ich z dobr kośćielnych potrzebne przestrogi. Dla Ich Mćiow Pánow Zołnierzow stárych, y inszych młodych, co się ná Zołnierską vsługę sposabiáć będą [Soldier stations: A warning for extraction from Church lands. For Sir Soldiers old and young that will think about soldier's career.] (in Polish). p. 10.
16. Palmer, William (1876). The Patriarch and the Tsar ... Trübner and Company. p. 58.
17. Archivio storico lombardo (in Italian). Società storica lombarda. 1907. p. 409.
18. Monumenta hungariae historica: Irök (in Hungarian). Magyar Tudományos Akadémia. 1894. p. 473.
19. Kot 1937, p. 2.
20. Speake, Jennifer, ed. (2015). Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs. 6th edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 92. ISBN 978-0198734901
21. Simpson, John and Speake, Jennifer (2008). "England is the paradise of women, the hell of horses, and the purgatory of servants". Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs. ISBN 978-0191727740
22. Joanna Tokarska-Bakir (2004). Rzeczy mgliste: eseje i studia [Hazy Things: Essays and Studies]. Fundacja Pogranicze. p. 53. ISBN 978-83-86872-60-2. Mirror
23. Garbowski, Christopher (2016). "Polin: From a 'Here You Shall Rest' Covenant to the Creation of a Polish Jewish History Museum. An interview with Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett". The Polish Review. 61 (2): 14 (3–17). doi:10.5406/polishreview.61.2.3.
24. Kot 1937, p. 13.
25. Kot 1937, p. 16-17, 19, 27–28.
26. Kot 1937, p. 28.
27. Krzyżanowski 1958, p. 435.
28. Haumann, Heiko (2002-01-01). A History of East European Jews. Central European University Press. p. 30. ISBN 9789639241268.
29. Modras, Ronald (2000). The Catholic Church and Antisemitism: Poland, 1933-1939. Psychology Press. p. 17. ISBN 9789058231291.
30. Geller, Ewa (2018). "Yiddish 'Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum" from Early Modern Poland: A Humanistic Symbiosis of Latin Medicine and Jewish Thought". In Moskalewicz, Marcin; Caumanns, Ute; Dross, Fritz (eds.). Jewish Medicine and Healthcare in Central Eastern Europe. Springer. p. 20 (13–26). ISBN 9783319924809.
31. Despard, Matthew K. (2015-01-02). "In Search of a Polish Past". Jewish Quarterly. 62 (1): 40–43. doi:10.1080/0449010x.2015.1010393. ISSN 0449-010X.
32. Rosenfeld, Gavriel D. (September 2016). "Mixed Metaphors in Muranów: Holocaust Memory and Architectural Meaning at the POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews". Dapim: Studies on the Holocaust. 30 (3): 258–273. doi:10.1080/23256249.2016.1242550. ISSN 2325-6249.
33. Daniel Elphick (3 October 2019). Music behind the Iron Curtain: Weinberg and his Polish Contemporaries. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-108-49367-3.
34. Kraushar, Alexandra (1865). Historya żydów w Polsce [History of the Jews in Poland]. Warsaw: Druk Gazety Polskiéj. p. 242.
35. Klier, John (2011). "Chapter 1: Poland-Lithuania: "Paradise for Jews"". Russia Gathers Her Jews: The Origins of the "Jewish Question" in Russia, 1772-1825. Northern Illinois University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-87580-983-0.
36. Hundert, Gershon David (1997-10-01). "Poland: Paradisus Judaeorum". Journal of Jewish Studies. 48 (2): 335–348. doi:10.18647/2003/jjs-1997. ISSN 0022-2097.
37. Byron L. Sherwin (24 April 1997). Sparks Amidst the Ashes: The Spiritual Legacy of Polish Jewry. Oxford University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-19-535546-8.
38. Norman Davies (2005). God's Playground A History of Poland: Volume 1: The Origins to 1795. Oxford. p. 165.
39. "Paradisus Iudaeorum (1569–1648)". POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews. Retrieved 2018-11-12.
40. Kijek, Kamil (2017). "For whom and about what? The Polin Museum, Jewish historiography, and Jews as a "Polish cause"". Studia Litteraria et Historica. 6: 1–21. doi:10.11649/slh.1363. ISSN 2299-7571.

Further reading

• Muszyński, Henryk (2017). "Polish-Jewish Relations Thirty Years after the Publication of the "Nostra Aetate" Conciliar Declaration". In Michnik, Adam; Marczyk, Agnieszka (eds.). Against Anti-Semitism: An Anthology of Twentieth-Century Polish Writings. Oxford University Press. p. 293. ISBN 978-0-19-062452-1.