Contemporary electronic music

In the 1970s, electronic music began to have a significant influence on popular music, with the adoption of polyphonic synthesizers, electronic drums, drum machines and turntables, through the emergence of music such as new wave, hip hop, and electronic dance music (EDM). In the 1980s, electronic music became more dominant in popular music, with a greater reliance on synthesizers and the adoption of programmable drum machines such as the Roland TR-808 and bass synthesizers such as the TB-303. In the early 1980s, digital technologies for synthesizers including digital synthesizers such as the Yamaha DX7 became popular and a group of musicians and music merchants developed the Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI).

"Electronica" redirects here. For other uses, see Electronica (disambiguation).
Electronic music
Experimental forms
Popular styles
Other topics
Analog synthesizer inventor Robert Moog.
Cultural origins1950s to 1980s, Europe, Japan[1] and the United States
Typical instrumentsElectronic[2]
Derivative forms
Subgenres
Fusion genres
Other topics

As the technology developed, it became possible for individuals or smaller groups to produce electronic songs and recordings in smaller studios, even in project studios. At the same time, computers facilitated the use of music "samples" and "loops" as construction kits for sonic compositions.[3] This led to a period of creative experimentation and the development of new forms.[4][5] Composers often create alternate versions of their compositions, known as "remixes"; this practice also occurs in related musical forms such as ambient, jungle, and EDM.[6]

All-electronic music is known under many names, such as "electronica," an umbrella term to describe electronic and EDM developments of the late 20th century, including drone, ambient, industrial dance, house, techno, trance, trip hop, jungle, drum and bass, et al.[7][8][9]

Terminology

The U.S.-based AllMusic categorizes "electronica" as a top-level genre, stating that it includes danceable grooves, as well as music for headphones and chillout areas.[10] In other parts of the world, especially in the UK, electronica is also a broad term, but is associated with non-dance-oriented music, including relatively experimental styles of downtempo electronic music.

In North America, in the late 1990s, the mainstream music industry adopted and to some extent manufactured "electronica" as an umbrella term encompassing electronic music and electronic dance music styles such as techno, big beat, drum and bass, trip hop, downtempo, and ambient, regardless of whether it was curated by indie labels catering to the "underground" nightclub and rave scenes,[11][12] or licensed by major labels and marketed to mainstream audiences as a commercially viable alternative to alternative rock music.[13]

Prehistory
Main article: Electronic music

Post-punk and post-disco
Main article: Art pop
See also: Post-punk, post-disco, and new wave music

Developing further with artists who rejected conventional rock instrumentation and structure in favor of dance styles and the synthesizer. art pop's traditions would be continued in the late 1970s and 1980s through styles such as post-punk and synthpop as well as the British New Romantic scene.[14]

Inspired by punk's energy and DIY ethic but determined to break from rock cliches, artists experimented with styles like funk, electronic music, jazz, and dance music; the production techniques of dub and disco; and ideas from art and politics, including critical theory, modernist art, cinema and literature.[15][16] The early post-punk vanguard was represented by groups including Siouxsie and the Banshees, Wire, Public Image Ltd, the Pop Group, Cabaret Voltaire, Magazine, Pere Ubu, Joy Division, Talking Heads, Devo, Gang of Four, the Slits, the Cure, and the Fall.[17] The movement was closely related to the development of ancillary genres such as gothic rock, neo-psychedelia, no wave, and industrial music. By the mid-1980s, post-punk had dissipated, but it provided a foundation for the New Pop movement and the later alternative and independent genres.

A Black American "new wave" of sorts also arose in the late 1970s and early 1980s, driven, as AllMusic points out, by "drum machines, synthesizers and programming [becoming] common studio tools." Following the musically stripped-down approach of Stevie Wonder and Parliament-Funkadelic, post-disco explored a more electronic and experimental side of African-American music by incorporating an eclectic range of styles, e.g. Jamaican music, electronic art music, jazz, blues and, in the latter years, European and Japanese synthesizer music.[18] Stretching the boundaries of disco music, post-disco took many forms, some entirely R&B-based (NYC boogie), some post-punk–based (alternative dance), underground club culture-centered (Chicago house with its own style of dance called jacking) and futurism–leaning[19] (Detroit techno). Embracing new wave music (synth-pop)[20] proper was proven to be influential, as Afrika Bambaataa ("Renegades of Funk") and Arthur Baker point out, on both underground and mainstream black dance music (electro, dance-rock, Minneapolis sound).

In the late 1960s bands such as Silver Apples created electronic music that was intended to be danced to.[21] Other early examples of music that influenced later electronic dance music include Jamaican dub music during the late 1960s to 1970s, the synthesizer-based disco music of Italian producer Giorgio Moroder in the late 1970s, and the electro-pop of Kraftwerk and Yellow Magic Orchestra in the mid-to-late 1970s.

Synthesizer pop music
Main article: Synth-pop
See also: Electropop, City pop, and Dance-pop

After the breakthrough of Gary Numan in the UK Singles Chart in 1979, large numbers of artists began to enjoy success with a synthesizer-based sound in the early 1980s, including late-1970s debutants like Japan and Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, and newcomers such as Depeche Mode and Eurythmics. In Japan, Yellow Magic Orchestra's success opened the way for synth-pop bands such as P-Model, Plastics, and Hikashu. The development of inexpensive polyphonic synthesizers, the definition of MIDI and the use of dance beats, led to a more commercial and accessible sound for synth-pop. This, its adoption by the style-conscious acts from the New Romantic movement, together with the rise of MTV, led to success for large numbers of British synth-pop acts (including Duran Duran and Spandau Ballet) in the United States.

Electronic rock
Main article: Electronic rock
See also: Electronics in rock music, Krautrock, and post-rock

In the 1970s, German "krautrock" bands such as Neu!, Kraftwerk, Can, and Ash Ra Tempel challenged rock boundaries by incorporating electronic instrumentation.[22] Since the late 2000s, electronic rock has become increasingly popular.[23] Electronic rock acts usually fuse elements from other music styles, including punk rock, industrial rock, hip hop, techno, and synth-pop, which has helped spur subgenres such as indietronica, dance-punk, and electroclash.

Late-20th century developments

1970s

Hi-NRG
Main article: Hi-NRG
See also: Italo disco

In 1977, Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellotte produced "I Feel Love" for Donna Summer. It became the first well-known disco song to have a completely synthesized backing track,[24][25] and was influential on synthpop, house music, and techno. As a music genre, it was typified by fast tempo, staccato hi-hat rhythms (and the four-on-the-floor pattern), reverberated "intense" vocals and "pulsating" octave basslines. Its earliest association was with Italo disco.

1980s
See also: Miami bass, Contemporary R&B, Dance-pop, Latin freestyle, Electro (music), Acid house, Hip house, Latin house, and Industrial dance music

Electro
Main article: Electro (music)

Following the decline of disco music in the United States, electro music emerged as a fusion of funk and New York boogie. Early hip hop and rap combined with German and Japanese electropop influences such as Kraftwerk and Yellow Magic Orchestra (YMO) inspired the birth of electro.[26] In 1982, producer Arthur Baker with Afrika Bambaataa released the seminal "Planet Rock", which was built using samples from Kraftwerk's Trans-Europe Express (1977) and drum beats supplied by the TR-808. Planet Rock was followed later that year by another breakthrough electro record, Nunk by Warp 9. In 1983, Hashim created an electro funk sound which influenced Herbie Hancock, resulting in his hit single "Rockit". The early 1980s were electro's mainstream peak.

House and techno
Main articles: Techno and House music
See also: Detroit techno, Chicago house, Balearic house, and Second Summer of Love

After the success of house music, a type of music created by DJs and musicians from Chicago's underground club culture in the 1980s, as DJs from the subculture began altering disco dance tracks to give them a more mechanical beat and deeper basslines,[27] techno grew in popularity in a number of European countries, including the UK, Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands.[28] In Europe regional variants quickly evolved and by the early 1990s techno subgenres such as acid, hardcore, ambient, and dub techno had developed. Music journalists and fans of EDM are generally selective in their use of the term; so a clear distinction can be made between sometimes related but often qualitatively different styles, such as tech house and trance.[29][30][31][32]

The term "techno" originated in Germany in the early 1980s, but it was established as a name for a specific genre of electronic dance music produced in Detroit following the UK release of the 1988 compilation Techno! The New Dance Sound of Detroit.[33][34] Detroit techno resulted from the melding of synthpop by artists such as Kraftwerk, Giorgio Moroder and Yellow Magic Orchestra with African American styles such as house, electro, and funk.[35] Added to this is the influence of futuristic and science-fiction themes[36] relevant to life in American late capitalist society, with Alvin Toffler's book The Third Wave a notable point of reference.[37][38] The music produced in the mid to late 1980s by Juan Atkins, Derrick May, and Kevin Saunderson (collectively known as the Belleville Three), along with Eddie Fowlkes, Blake Baxter and James Pennington is viewed as the first wave of techno from Detroit.[39]

1990s
See also: Progressive house, Tech house, Minimal techno, Trance music, Intelligent dance music, Eurodance, Ghetto house, Hardcore (electronic dance music genre), and Digital hardcore

Trance
Main article: Trance music
See also: List of trance genres

Trance is a genre of electronic music that emerged from the British new-age music scene and the early 1990s German techno and hardcore scenes.[40] At the same time trance music was developing in Europe, the genre was also gathering a following in the Indian state of Goa.[41]

Trance music is characterized by a tempo lying between 135–150 bpm (BPM), repeating melodic phrases and a musical form that distinctly builds tension and elements throughout a track often culminating in 1 to 2 "peaks" or "drops". Although trance is a genre of its own, it liberally incorporates influences from other musical styles such as techno, house, pop, chill-out, classical music, tech house, ambient and film music.

Examples of early trance releases include but are not limited to KLF's 1988 release "What Time Is Love?" (Pure Trance 1),[42] German duo Dance 2 Trance's 1990 track "We Came in Peace", and German duo Jam & Spoon's 1992 12" Single remix of the 1990 song "The Age Of Love". Another possible antecedent is Yuzo Koshiro and Motohiro Kawashima's electronic soundtracks for the Streets of Rage series of video games from 1991 to 1994.[43][44][45]

Jungle
Main article: Jungle music

Jungle is a music genre that developed out of the UK rave scene and reggae sound system culture in the 1990s. Emerging from breakbeat hardcore, the style is characterized by rapid breakbeats, heavily syncopated percussive loops, samples, and synthesized effects, combined with the deep basslines, melodies, and vocal samples found in dub, reggae and dancehall, as well as hip hop and funk. Jungle was a predecessor to drum and bass, which saw success in the late 1990s.[46]

The origin of the word jungle is one of discussion. Rebel MC is often noted for having popularised the term, and in the book Energy Flash, MC Navigator is quoted as attributing the word to him.[47] Others such as MC Five-O attribute it to MC Moose,[48] whilst Rob Playford (of Moving Shadow) attributes it to MC Mad P (of Top Buzz).[49] Some thought of this term as empowering, an assertion of the blackness of the music and its subculture, inverting the racist history of the term "jungle music."[50]

Drum and bass
Main article: Drum and bass
See also: History of drum and bass

Drum and bass (or D'n'B, as it is commonly abbreviated) is a genre of electronic music characterized by fast breakbeats (typically 165-185 beats per minute[51]) with heavy bass and sub-bass lines,[52] sampled sources, and synthesizers. The music grew out of breakbeat hardcore (and its derivatives of darkcore, and hardcore jungle).[53] The popularity of drum and bass at its commercial peak ran parallel to several other homegrown dance styles. A major influence was the original Jamaican dub and reggae sound that came into London in the 1980s. By the 1990s, this had grown into the jungle/drum and bass sound which the UK is famous for. Another feature of the style is the complex syncopation of the drum tracks' breakbeat.[54]

Drum and bass subgenres include breakcore, ragga jungle, hardstep, darkstep, techstep, neurofunk, ambient drum and bass, liquid funk (a.k.a liquid drum and bass), jump up, drumfunk, funkstep, sambass, and drill 'n' bass. From its roots in the United Kingdom, the style has established itself around the world. Drum and bass has influenced many other genres like hip hop, big beat, dubstep, house, trip hop, ambient music, techno, jazz, rock and pop. Drum and bass is dominated by a relatively small group of record labels.

Trip hop
Main article: Trip hop

Trip hop (sometimes used synonymously with "downtempo")[55] is a musical genre that originated in the early 1990s in the United Kingdom, especially Bristol.[56] It has been described as "a fusion of hip hop and electronica until neither genre is recognizable",[57] and may incorporate a variety of styles, including funk, dub, soul, psychedelia, R&B, and house, as well as other forms of electronic music.[58] Trip hop can be highly experimental.[58]

Deriving from later idioms of acid house,[58] the term was first used by the British music media to describe the more experimental variant of breakbeat emerging from the Bristol Sound scene in the early 1990s, which contained influences of soul, funk, and jazz.[58][59] It was pioneered by acts like Massive Attack, Tricky, and Portishead.[60] Trip hop achieved commercial success in the 1990s, and has been described as "Europe's alternative choice in the second half of the '90s."[58]

IDM
Main article: Intelligent dance music
See also: Glitch (music)

IDM is a style of electronic music originating in the early 1990s, regarded as "cerebral" and better suited to home listening than dancing.[61][62][63] Emerging from electronic and rave music styles such as techno, acid house, ambient music, and breakbeat,[64][65] IDM tended to rely upon individualistic experimentation rather than adhering to characteristics associated with specific genres.[66] Prominent artists associated with the genre include Aphex Twin, μ-Ziq, the Black Dog, the Orb, the Future Sound of London, Autechre, Luke Vibert, Squarepusher, Venetian Snares, and Boards of Canada.[61][62]

Big beat
Main article: Big beat

Around the mid-1990s, with the success of the big beat-sound exemplified by The Chemical Brothers and The Prodigy in the UK, and spurred by the attention from mainstream artists, including Madonna in her collaboration with William Orbit on her album Ray of Light[67] and Australian singer music of this period began to be produced with a higher budget, increased technical quality, and with more layers than most other forms of dance music, since it was backed by major record labels and MTV as the "next big thing".[68] According to a 1997 Billboard article, "the union of the club community and independent labels" provided the experimental and trend-setting environment in which electronica acts developed and eventually reached the mainstream. It cites American labels such as Astralwerks (The Chemical Brothers, Fatboy Slim, The Future Sound of London, Fluke), Moonshine (DJ Keoki), Sims, and City of Angels (The Crystal Method) for playing a significant role in discovering and marketing artists who became popularized in the electronica scene.[11]

21st-century developments

2000s
See also: Crunk, Trap music, Trap music (EDM), Electroclash, Hardstyle, and Moombahton

Dubstep
Main article: Dubstep

Dubstep is a genre of electronic dance music that originated in South London in the late 1990s. It is generally characterised by sparse, syncopated rhythmic patterns with prominent sub-bass frequencies. The style emerged as an offshoot of UK garage, drawing on a lineage of related styles such as 2-step and dub reggae, as well as jungle, broken beat, and grime.[69][70] In the United Kingdom, the origins of the genre can be traced back to the growth of the Jamaican sound system party scene in the early 1980s.[70][71]

The early sounds of proto-dubstep originally came out of productions during 1999–2000 by producers such as Oris Jay, El-B, Steve Gurley and Zed Bias.[72][73] Ammunition Promotions, who run the influential club night Forward>> and have managed many proto-dubstep record labels (including Tempa, Soulja, Road, Vehicle, Shelflife, Texture, Lifestyle and Bingo), began to use the term "dubstep" to describe this style of music in around 2002. The term's use in a 2002 XLR8R cover story (featuring Horsepower Productions on the cover) contributed to it becoming established as the name of the genre.[72][74]

2010s
See also: Big room house, Future bass, Hardvapour, and Deconstructed club

Chillwave
Main article: Chillwave
See also: Vaporwave

Chillwave loosely emulates 1980s electropop and engages with notions of memory and nostalgia. It was one of the first music genres to develop primarily through the Internet. The term was coined in 2009 by the satirical blog Hipster Runoff to describe indie acts whose sounds resembled incidental music from 1980s VHS tapes. Its most prominent artists were the acts Neon Indian, Washed Out, and Toro y Moi, who gained attention during 2009's "Summer of Chillwave". Washed Out's 2009 track "Feel It All Around" remains the best-known chillwave song.

Pitchfork's Nitsuh Abebe writes that, since at least 1992, the style has existed for the same principal reason: "stoned, happy college kids listening to records while they fall asleep." Abebe cites Slowdive, Darla Records' Blissed Out ambient compilations, and Casino Versus Japan's eponymous 1998 album as examples. One of the earliest known manifestations of the genre is the Beach Boys' song "All I Wanna Do" from their 1970 album Sunflower.[75][76] Boards of Canada, whom Abebe says pre-chillwave music was often compared to, were also influential,[77] as were J Dilla's 2006 album Donuts and Fennesz

1990s and 2000s commercially successful musical acts include Björk (Post and Homogenic), Madonna (Ray of Light)[67], Dannii Minogue (Girl),[78] Goldfrapp, Autechre, Aphex Twin, The Prodigy, Fatboy Slim, Daft Punk, The Chemical Brothers, The Crystal Method,[79] Moby, Underworld, and Faithless.

See also

References
  1. Vladimir Bogdanov; Jason Ankeny (2001). All music guide to electronica: the definitive guide to electronic music (4th ed.). Backbeat Books. p. 564. ISBN 0-87930-628-9.
  2. "Electronica lives and dies by its grooves, fat synthesizer patches, and fliter sweeps.". Page 376, DirectX Audio Exposed: Interactive Audio Development, Todd Fay, Wordware Publishing, 2003, ISBN 1-55622-288-2
  3. "This loop slicing technique is common to the electronica genre and allows a live drum feel with added flexibility and variation." Page 380, DirectX Audio Exposed: Interactive Audio Development, Todd Fay, Wordware Publishing, 2003, ISBN 1-55622-288-2
  4. "Electronically produced music is part of the mainstream of popular culture. Musical concepts that were once considered radical - the use of environmental sounds, ambient music, turntable music, digital sampling, computer music, the electronic modification of acoustic sounds, and music made from fragments of speech-have now been subsumed by many kinds of popular music. Record store genres including new age, rap, hip-hop, electronica, techno, jazz, and popular song all rely heavily on production values and techniques that originated with classic electronic music." Page 1, Electronic and Experimental Music: Pioneers in Technology and Composition, Thomas B. Holmes, Routledge Music/Songbooks, 2002, ISBN 0-415-93643-8
  5. "Electronica and punk have a definite similarity: They both totally prescribe to a DIY aesthetic. We both tried to work within the constructs of the traditional music business, but the system didn't get us - so we found a way to do it for ourselves, before it became affordable.", quote from artist BT, page 45, Wired: Musicians' Home Studios : Tools & Techniques of the Musical Mavericks, Megan Perry, Backbeat Books Music/Songbooks 2004, ISBN 0-87930-794-3
  6. " For example, composers often render more than one version of their own compositions. This practice is not unique to the mod scene, of course, and occurs commonly in dance club music and related forms (such as ambient, jungle, etc.—all broadly designated 'electronica')." Page 48, Music and Technoculture, Rene T. A. Lysloff, Tandem Library Books, 2003, ISBN 0-613-91250-0
  7. Sellin, Yara (1999). San Francisco Style: Rave Music Performance Practice and Analysis. University of California, p. 71. Quote: "[E]lectronica is not a school of composition or genre of music; it's a blanket term as broad as, say "classical," used to describe hundreds of developing movements from all over, including drone, ambient, trip hop, hardcore, [etc.]"
  8. Campbell, Michael (2012). "Electronica and Rap". Popular Music in America: The Beat Goes On (4th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0840029768.
  9. Verderosa, Tony (2002). The Techno Primer: The Essential Reference for Loop-Based Music Styles. Hal Leonard Music/Songbooks. p. 28. ISBN 0-634-01788-8. Electronica is a broad term used to describe the emergence of electronic music that is geared for listening instead of strictly for dancing.
  10. "'Reaching back to grab the grooves of '70s disco/funk and the gadgets of electronic composition, Electronica soon became a whole new entity in and of itself, spinning off new sounds and subgenres with no end in sight two decades down the pike. Its beginnings came in the post-disco environment of Chicago/New York and Detroit, the cities who spawned house and techno (respectively) during the 1980s. Later in that decade, club-goers in Britain latched onto the fusion of mechanical and sensual, and returned the favor to hungry Americans with new styles like jungle/drum'n'bass and trip hop. Though most all early electronica was danceable, by the beginning of the '90s, producers were also making music for the headphones and chill-out areas as well, resulting in dozens of stylistic fusions like ambient-house, experimental techno, tech-house, electro-techno, etc. Typical for the many styles gathered under the umbrella was a focus on danceable grooves, very loose song structure (if any), and, in many producers, a relentless desire to find a new sound no matter how tepid the results." Electronica Genre at AllMusic
  11. Flick, Larry (May 24, 1997). "Dancing to the beat of an indie drum". Billboard. 109 (21). pp. 70–71. ISSN 0006-2510.
  12. Kim Cascone (Winter 2002). "The Aesthetics of Failure: 'Post-Digital' Tendencies in Contemporary Computer Music". Computer Music Journal. MIT Press. 24 (4). The glitch genre arrived on the back of the electronica movement, an umbrella term for alternative, largely dance-based electronic music (including house, techno, electro, drum'n'bass, ambient) that has come into vogue in the past five years. Most of the work in this area is released on labels peripherally associated with the dance music market, and is therefore removed from the contexts of academic consideration and acceptability that it might otherwise earn. Still, in spite of this odd pairing of fashion and art music, the composers of glitch often draw their inspiration from the masters of 20th century music who they feel best describe its lineage.
  13. Norris, Chris (April 21, 1997). "Recycling the Future". New York: 64–65. With record sales slumping and alternative rock presumed over, the music industry is famously desperate for a new movement to replace its languishing grunge product. And so its gaze has fixed on a vital and international scene of knob-twiddling musicians and colorfully garbed clubgoers—a scene that, when it began in Detroit discos ten years ago, was called techno. If all goes according to marketing plan, 1997 will be the year "electronica" replaces "grunge" as linguistic plague, MTV buzz, ad soundtrack, and runway garb. The music has been freshly installed in Microsoft commercials, in the soundtrack to Hollywood's recycled action-hero pic The Saint, and in MTV's newest, hourlong all-electronica program, Amp.
  14. Fisher, Mark (2010). "You Remind Me of Gold: Dialogue with Simon Reynolds". Kaleidoscope (9).
  15. Reynolds, Simon. "It Came From London: A Virtual Tour of Post-Punk's Roots". Time Out London. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
  16. Reynolds 2005, p. xxxi.
  17. For verification of these groups as part of the original post-punk vanguard see Heylin 2007, Siouxsie & the Banshees, Magazine and PiL, Wire; Reynolds 2013, p. 210, "... the 'post-punk vanguard'—overtly political groups like Gang of Four, Au Pairs, Pop Group ..."; Kootnikoff 2010, p. 30, "[Post-punk] bands like Joy Division, Gang of Four, and the Fall were hugely influential"; Cavanagh 2015, pp. 192–193, Gang of Four, Cabaret Voltaire, The Cure, PiL, Throbbing Gristle, Joy Division; Bogdanov, Woodstra & Erlewine 2002, p. 1337, Pere Ubu, Talking Heads; Cateforis 2011, p. 26, Devo, Throbbing Gristle, Siouxsie and the Banshees, the Slits, Wire
  18. Burnim, Mellonee V.; Maultsby, Portia K. (13 November 2014). African American Music: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 336. ISBN 9781317934431.
  19. Butler, Mark J. (2017). Electronica, Dance and Club Music. Routledge. p. 456. ISBN 9781351568548. [T]echno was a music that attempted to dislocate and deterritorialize itself, in looking to European electronic music, to new musical forms and technologies and 'western' futurist political theory. However, techno was not a rejection of an African American heritage but an attempt to engage with and consider the 'full meaning of black identity.' Atkins in particular adopted and adapted what was viewed by some as the most 'white' of 'white music'[;] Cosgrove seemed more than a little surprised that Visage, Depeche Mode and the Human League could be the inspiration for techno.
  20. Sicko, D. (2010). Techno Rebels: The Renegades of Electronic Funk (2nd ed.). Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0814334386. Just as Italo-disco had, new wave caught on with African American audiences in Detroit nowhere else in the United States. One could hear new wave's offbeat and eclectic ingredients working themselves out in Detroit's early electronic dance records, where groups like Human League, B-52s, and Visage were reconciled with Eurodisco, the Midwestern funk of George Clinton, Zapp, the Ohio Players, and, subconsciously, the soul of Motown.
  22. Demby, Eric. "OLD NEU! Albums Finally Coming Stateside". MTV News. Retrieved 25 January 2020.
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  24. "Chart Search: Billboard". billboard.com.
  25. Shapiro, Peter (2000). Modulations: A History of Electronic Music. Caipirinha Productions, Inc. pp. 254 pages. ISBN 978-0-8195-6498-6. see p.45, 46
  26. "Electro". Allmusic. Retrieved 2012-06-20.
  27. "House Music Genre Overview - AllMusic". Retrieved 5 September 2016.
  28. Short excerpt from special on German "Tele 5" from Dec. 8, 1988 on YouTubeThe show is called "Tanzhouse" hosted by a young Fred Kogel. It includes footage from Hamburg's "Front" with Boris Dlugosch, Kemal Kurum's "Opera House" and the "Prinzenbar".
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  33. Brewster 2006:354
  34. Reynolds 1999:71. Detroit's music had hitherto reached British ears as a subset of Chicago house; [Neil] Rushton and the Belleville Three decided to fasten on the word techno – a term that had been bandied about but never stressed – in order to define Detroit as a distinct genre.
  35. Bogdanov, Vladimir (2001). All music guide to electronica: the definitive guide to electronic music (4 ed.). Backbeat Books. p. 582. ISBN 0-87930-628-9. Retrieved May 26, 2011. Typically, that birth is traced to the early '80s and the emaciated inner-city of Detroit, where figures such as Juan Atkins, Derrick May, and Kevin Saunderson, among others, fused the quirky machine music of Kraftwerk and Yellow Magic Orchestra with the space-race electric funk of George Clinton, the optimistic futurism of Alvin Toffler's The Third Wave (from which the music derived its name), and the emerging electro sound elsewhere being explored by Soul Sonic Force, the Jonzun Crew, Man Parrish, "Pretty" Tony Butler, and LA's Wrecking Cru.
  36. Rietveld 1998:125
  37. Sicko 1999:28
  38. Having grown up with the latter-day effects of Fordism, the Detroit techno musicians read futurologist Alvin Toffler's soundbite predictions for change – 'blip culture', 'the intelligent environment', 'the infosphere', 'de-massification of the media de-massifies our minds', 'the techno rebels', 'appropriated technologies' – accorded with some, though not all, of their own intuitions, Toop, D. (1995), Ocean of Sound, Serpent's Tail, (p. 215).
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  42. Harrison, Andrew (April 27, 2017). "Return of the KLF: 'They were agents of chaos. Now the world they anticipated is here'". The Guardian. Retrieved November 22, 2019 – via www.theguardian.com.
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Literature
  • Cummins, James. 2008. Ambrosia: About a Culture – An Investigation of Electronica Music and Party Culture. Toronto, ON: Clark-Nova Books. ISBN 978-0-9784892-1-2
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