Swan maiden

The swan maiden is a mythical creature who shapeshifts from human form to swan form.[1] The key to the transformation is usually a swan skin, or a garment with swan feathers attached. In folktales of this type, the male character spies the maiden, typically by some body of water (usually bathing), then snatches away the feather garment (or some other article of clothing), which prevents her from flying away (or swimming away, or renders her helpless in some other manner), forcing her to become his wife.[2]

In the Völundarkviða, Wayland Smith and his brothers marry valkyries who dress in swan skins.

There are parallels around the world, notably the Völundarkviða[3] and Grimms' Fairy Tales KHM 193 "The Drummer".[2] There are also many parallels involving creatures other than swans.

Legend

Typical legend
The hunter recognizes his bride amongst the parade of identical maidens. Illustration from Jacobs's Europa's Fairy Book by John D. Batten

The folktales usually adhere to the following basic plot. A young, unmarried man steals a magic robe made of swan feathers from a swan maiden so that she will not fly away, and marries her. Usually she bears his children. When the children are older they sing a song about where their father has hidden their mother's robe, or one asks why the mother always weeps, and finds the cloak for her, or they otherwise betray the secret. The swan maiden immediately gets her robe and disappears to where she came from. Although the children may grieve her, she does not take them with her.

If the husband is able to find her again, it is an arduous quest, and often the impossibility is clear enough so that he does not even try.

In many versions, although the man is unmarried (or, very rarely, a widower), he is aided by his mother, who hides the maiden's magical garment (or feather cloak). At some point later in the story, the mother is convinced or forced to give back the hidden clothing and, as soon as the swan maiden puts it, she glides towards the skies - which prompts the quest.

Germanic legend

The stories of Wayland the Smith describe him as falling in love with Swanhilde, a Swan Maiden, who is the daughter of a marriage between a mortal woman and a fairy king, who forbids his wife to ask about his origins; on her asking him he vanishes. Swanhilde and her sisters are however able to fly as swans. But wounded by a spear, Swanhilde falls to earth and is rescued by the master-craftsman Wieland, and marries him, putting aside her wings and her magic ring of power. Wieland's enemies, the Neidings, under Princess Bathilde, steal the ring, kidnap Swanhilde and destroy Wieland's home. When Wieland searches for Swanhilde, they entrap and cripple him. However he fashions wings for himself and escapes with Swanhilde as the house of the Neidings is destroyed.

Another occurrence of the maiden with the magic swan-shirt that allows her avian transformation is the story of valkyrie[4] Brynhild.[5] In the Völsunga saga, King Agnar withholds Brynhild's magical swan shirt, thus forcing her into his service as his enforcer.[6]

Other fiction

The swan maiden has appeared in numerous items of fiction.

In legend

In the Irish Mythological Cycle of stories, in the tale of The Wooing of Étaine, a similar test involving the recognition of the wife among lookalikes happens to Eochu Airem, when he has to find his beloved Étaine, who flew away in the shape of a swan.[7] A second tale of a maiden changing into a swan is the story of hero Óengus, who falls in love with Caer Ibormeith, in a dream.

In folklore

The tale of the swan maiden is believed to be attested in Lady Featherflight, a tale obtained from an English storyteller (an old aunt).[8] Lady Featherflight helps the hero against her giant father and both escape (ATU 313 The Magical Flight). A similar tale involving a swan maiden helping the hero against the maiden's mistress (an old witch) was published by illustrator Howard Pyle in The Wonder Clock.[9]

Another occurrence of the motif in Russian folklore exists in Sweet Mikáilo Ivánovich the Rover: Mikailo Ivanovich goes hunting and, when he sets his aim on a white swan, it pleads for its life. Then, the swan transforms into a lovely maiden, Princess Márya, whom Mikail falls in love with.[10][11]

A version of the plot of the Swan Maiden happens in Swabian tale The Three Swans (Von drei Schwänen): a widowed hunter, guided by an old man of the woods, secures the magical garment of the swan-maiden and marries her. Fifteen years pass, and his second wife finds her swan-coat and flies away. The hunter trails after her and reaches a castle, where his wife and her sisters live. The swan-maiden tells him that he must pass through arduous trials in the castle for three nights, in order to break the curse cast upon the women.[12] The motif of staying overnight in an enchanted castle echoes the tale of The Youth who wanted to learn what Fear was (ATU 326).

Flemish fairy tale collections also contain two tales with the presence of the Swan Maiden: De Koning van Zevenbergen ("The King of Sevenmountains")[13] and Het Zwanenmeisje van den glazen Berg ("The Swan Maiden from the Glass Mountain").[14] Johannes Bolte, in a book review of de Cock and de Mont's publication, noted that their tale was parallel to Grimms' KHM 193, The Drummer.[15]

In an Iberian tale (The Seven Pigeons), a fisherman spots a black-haired girl combing her hair in the rocks. Upon the approach of two pigeons, she finishes her activity and turns into a swan wearing a crown on her head. When the three birds land on a nearby ship, they regain their human forms of maidens.[16]

The character of the swan-maiden also appears in an etiological tale from Romania about the origin of the swan,[17] and a ballad with the same theme.[18]

The usual plot involves a magical bird-maiden that descends from heavens to bathe in a lake. However, there are variants where the maiden and/or her sisters are princesses under a curse, such as Vaino and the Swan Princess.[19] A German tale collected by Johann Wilhelm Wolf (German: Von der schönen Schwanenjungfer; English: The tale of the beautiful swan maiden), a hunter in France sights a swan in a lake who pleads not to shoot her. The swan also reveals she is a princess and, to break her curse, he must suffer dangerous trials in a castle.[20]

Other example of multiple swan princesses can be found in the Finnish tale of prince Tuhkimo (a male Cinderella; from Finnish tuhka, "ashes") who marries a shapeshifting frog (ATU 402, "The Animal Bride" tale), but, when he burns her enchanted skin, his wife, now human, metamorphoses into a swan and flies away with her eight swan sisters (ATU 400, "The Quest for the Lost Wife").[21]

A Native American tale has the character of the Red Swan, a bird of reddened plumage, that attracts the attention of a young warrior, who goes on a quest to find her.[22]

Literary fairy tales (Künstmärchen) and other works

The Swan maiden story is believed to have been the basis for the ballet Swan Lake, in which a young princess, Odette and her maidens are under the spell of an evil sorcerer, Von Rothbart, transforming them into swans by day. By night, they regain their human forms and can only be rescued if a young man swears eternal love and faithfulness to the Princess. When Prince Siegfried swears his love for Odette, the spell can be broken, but Siegfried is tricked into declaring his love for Von Rothbart's daughter, Odile, disguised by magic as Odette, and all seems lost. But the spell is finally broken when Siegfried and Odette drown themselves in a lake of tears, uniting them in death for all eternity. While the ballet's revival of 1895 depicted the swan-maidens as mortal women cursed to turn into swans, the original libretto of 1877 depicted them as true swan-maidens: fairies who could transform into swans at will.[23] Several animated movies based on the ballet, including The Swan Princess and Barbie of Swan Lake depict the lead heroines as being under a spell and both are eventually rescued by their Princes.

The Swan Princess rides upon the waves of Buyan. Illustration by Boris Zvorykin.

The magical swan also appears in Russian poem The Tale of Tsar Saltan (1831), by Alexander Pushkin. The son of the titular Tsar Saltan, Prince Gvidon and his mother are cast in the sea in a barrel and wash ashore in a mystical island. There, the princeling grows up in days and becomes a fine hunter. Prince Gvidon and his mother begin to settle in the island thanks to the help of a magical swan called Princess Swan, and in the end of the tale she transforms into a princess and marries Prince Gvidon.[24]

A variant of the swan maiden narrative is present in the work of Johann Karl August Musäus,[25][26] a predecessor to the Brothers Grimm's endeavor in the early 1800s. His Volksmärchen der Deutschen contains the story of Der geraubte Schleier ("The Stolen Veil").[27] A French translation ("Voile envolé") can be found in Contes de Museäus (1826).[28] In a short summary: an old hermit, who lives near a lake of pristine water, rescues a young Swabian soldier; during a calm evening, the hermit reminisces about an episode of his adventurous youth when he met in Greece a swan-maiden, descended from Leda and Zeus themselves - in the setting of the story, the Greco-Roman deities were "genies" and "fairies". The hermit explains the secret of their magical garment and how to trap one of the ladies. History repeats itself as the young soldier sets his sights on a trio of swan maidens who descend from heavens to bathe in the lake.

Swan princess crying. Art by John Bauer (1908) for Helena Nyblom's tale Svanhammen.

Swedish writer Helena Nyblom explored the theme of a swan maiden who loses her feathery cloak in Svanhammen (The Swan Suit), published in 1908, in Bland tomtar och troll (Among Gnomes and Trolls), an annual anthology of literary fairy tales and stories.

In a literary work by Adrienne Roucolle, The Kingdom of the Good Fairies: in the chapter The Enchanted Swan, princess Lilian is turned into a swan by evil Fairy Hemlock.[29]

Male versions

The fairytale The Six Swans could be considered a male version of the swan maiden, where the swan skin isn't stolen but a curse, similar to The Swan Princess. An evil step-mother cursed her 6 stepsons with swan skin shirts that transform them into swans, which can only be cured by six nettle shirts made by their younger sister. Similar tales of a parent or a step-parent cursing their (step)children are the Irish legend of The Children of Lir, and The Wild Swans, a literary fairy tale by Danish author Hans Christian Andersen.

An inversion of the story (humans turning into swans) can be found in the Dolopathos: a hunter sights a (magical) maiden bathing in a lake and, after a few years, she gives birth to septuplets (six boys and a girl), born with gold chains around their necks. After being expelled by their grandmother, the children bathe in a lake in their swan forms, and return to human form thanks to their magical chains.

Another story of a male swan is Prince Swan (Prinz Schwan), an obscure tale collected by the Brothers Grimm in the very first edition of their Kinder- und Hausmärchen (1812), but removed from subsequent editions.[30]

Czech author Božena Němcová included in the first volume of her collection National Tales and Legends, published in 1845, a tale she titled The Swan (O Labuti), about a prince who's turned into a swan by a witch because his evil stepmother wanted to get rid of him.[31]

Brazilian tale Os três cisnes ("The Three Swans"), collected by Lindolfo Gomes, tells the story of a princess who marries an enchanted prince. After his wife breaks a taboo (he could never see himself in a mirror), he turns into a swan, which prompts his wife on a quest for his whereabouts, with the help of an old woodcutter.[32]

Folklore motif and tale types

Established folkloristics does not formally recognize "Swan Maidens" as a single Aarne-Thompson tale type. Rather, one must speak of tales that exhibit Stith Thompson motif index "D361.1 Swan Maiden",[33] which may be classed AT 400, 313,[34] or 465A.[2] Compounded by the fact that these tale types have "no fewer than ten other motifs" assigned to them, the AT system becomes a cumbersome tool for keeping track of parallels for this motif.[35] Seeking an alternate scheme, one investigator has developed a system of five Swan Maiden paradigms, four of them groupable as a Grimm tale cognate (KHM 193, 92, 93, and 113) and the remainder classed as the "AT 400" paradigm.[35] Thus for a comprehensive list of the most starkly-resembling cognates of Swan Maiden tales, one need only consult Bolte and Polívka's Anmerkungen to Grimm's Tale KHM 193[36] the most important paradigm of the group.[37]

Each of them using different methods, i.e. observation of the distribution area of the Swan Maiden type or use of phylogenetic methods to reconstruct the evolution of the tale, Gudmund Hatt, Yuri Berezkin and Julien d'Huy independently showed that this folktale would have appeared during the Paleolithic period, in the Pacific Asia, before spreading in two successive waves in America. In addition, Yuri Berezkin and Julien d'Huy showed that there was no mention of migratory birds in the early versions of this tale (this motif seems to appear very late).[38][39]

Animal wife motif

Antiquity and origin

It has been suggested the romance of apsara Urvasi and king Pururavas, of ancient Sanskrit literature, may be one of the oldest forms (or origin) of the Swan-Maiden tale.[40][41]

The antiquity of the swan-maiden tale was suggested in the 19th century by Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould, postulating an origin of the motif before the separation of the Proto-Indo-European language, and, due to the presence of the tale in diverse and distant traditions (such as Samoyedic and Native Americans), there was a possibility that the tale may be even older.[42] Another theory was supported by Charles Henry Tawney, in his translation of Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara: he suggests the source of the motif to be old Sanskrit literature; the tale then migrated to Middle East, and from there as an intermediate point, spread to Europe.[43]

According to Julien d'Huy, such a motif would also have existed in European prehistory and would have a buffalo maiden as a heroine. Indeed, this author finds the motif with four-legged animals in North America and Europe, in an area coinciding with the area of haplogroup X.[44]

The swan maiden also serves an ancestress for peoples and tribes of Siberia[45] and Central Asia,[46] as attested in ethnogenetic myths of the Buryat people.[47][48][49]

Professor Hazel Wigglesworth, who worked with the many languages of the Philippines archipelago, stated that the character of the mortal male is sometimes named Itung or Beletamey, and he represents a cultural hero or ancestor of the Manobo people.[50][51]

Distribution and variants

The motif of the wife of supernatural origin (in most cases, a swan maiden) shows universal appeal, being present in the oral and folkloric traditions of every continent.[52][53]

ATU 402 ("The Animal Bride") group of folktales are found across the world, though the animals vary.[54] The Italian fairy tale "The Dove Girl" features a dove. There are the Orcadian and Shetland selkies, that alternate between seal and human shape. A Croatian tale features a she-wolf.[55] The wolf also appears in the folklore of Estonia and Finland as the "animal bride", under the tale type ATU 409 "The Girl as Wolf".[56][57]

In Africa, the same motif is shown through buffalo maidens. In East Asia, it is also known featuring maidens who transform into various bird species. In Russian fairy-tales there are also several characters, connected with the Swan-maiden, as in The Sea King and Vasilisa the Wise, where the maiden is a dove. In the Japanese legend of Hagoromo, it is a heavenly spirit, or Tennin, whose robe is stolen.[58]

Professor Sir James George Frazer mentions a tale of the Pelew Islands, in the Pacific, about a man who marries a shapeshifting maiden by hiding her fish tail. She bears him a daughter, and, in one occasion, happens to find her fish tail and returns to the ocean soon after.[59]

A tale from Northeastern Asia, collected among the Chukchi people also attests the motif of the bird-wife.[60]

In many tales from the Inuit, the animal bride is a goose,[61] who, at the end of the tale, departs with her child.[62][63][64] The character of the Goose Wife also appears in tales from the Haida and the Tlingit.[65] Similar bird-wife tales[66] have been attested from Kodiak Island.[67]

Some tales from the Algonquins also tell of a young, unmarried hunter who approaches a lake where otherworldly women come to bathe in order to acquire the supernatural spouse.[68][69]

In a tale from the Tewa, collected by Elsie Clews Parsons, the youth Powitsire hunts a deer, which suggests the boy find a wife and reveals that three duck girls come to bathe in a nearby lake.[70]

In a tale from Oceania (New Hebrides), a man named Tagaro spies on women with bat-like wings (Banewonowono or Vinmara) who descend to bathe in a lake. The man takes the wings of one of them.[71][72] In a similar story from Aurora Island, in Vanuatu (The Winged Wife), the hero's name is Qat.[73]

In a tale attributed to the Toraja people of Indonesia, a woman gives birth to seven crabs that she throws in the water. As time passes, the seven crabs find a place to live and take their disguises to assume human form. In one occasion, seven males steal the crab disguises of the seven crab maidens and marry them.[74] A second one is close to the Swan maiden narrative, only with parakeets instead of swans; the hero is called Magoenggoelota and the maiden Kapapitoe.[75]

In mythology

One notably similar Japanese story, "The crane wife" (Tsuru Nyobo), is about a man who marries a woman who is in fact a crane (Tsuru no Ongaeshi) disguised as a human. To make money the crane-woman plucks her own feathers to weave silk brocade which the man sells, but she became increasingly ill as she does so. When the man discovers his wife's true identity and the nature of her illness, she leaves him. There are also a number of Japanese stories about men who married kitsune, or fox spirits in human form (as women in these cases), though in these tales the wife's true identity is a secret even from her husband. She stays willingly until her husband discovers the truth, at which point she must abandon him.[76]

The motif of the swan maiden or swan wife also appears in Southeast Asia, with the tales of Kinnari or Kinnaree (of Thailand) and the love story of Manohara and Prince Sudhana.[77]

Professor and folklorist James George Frazer, in his translation of The Libraries, by Pseudo-Apollodorus, suggests that the myth of Peleus and Thetis seems related to the swan maiden cycle of stories.[78]

In folklore

Europe

In a XIIIth century romance about Friedrich von Schwaben (English: "Frederick of Swabia"), the knight Friedrich hides the clothing of Princess Angelburge, who came to bathe in a lake in dove form.[79][80]

A tale from Tirol tells of prince Eligio and the Dove-Maidens, which bathe in a lake.[81] Doves also appear as the form three princesses are cursed under by an evil magician, who also transformed a prince into a giant, in a Portuguese folktale.[82]

In a Basque tale collected by Wentworth Webster (The Lady Pigeon and her Comb), the destitute hero is instructed by a "Tartaro" to collect the pigeon garment of the middle maiden, instead of the youngest.[83]

Waldemar Kaden collected a tale from South Italy (German: Der geraubte Schleier; English: "The Stolen Veil"), although he does not credit the source. It tells of a man who climbs a mountain and, aided by an old woman, fetches the garment of one of 12 dove-maidens who were bathing in the lake.[84] Kaden also compared it to Musäus version in his notes.[85]

In another tale, from Tirol, collected by Christian Schneller (German: Die drei Tauben; Italian: Le tre colombe; English: "The Three Doves"), a youth loses his soul in a gamble to a wizard. A saint helps him and gives the information about three doves that perch themselves on a bridge and change themselves to human form. The youth steals the clothing of the youngest, daughter of the wizard, and promises to tak him to her father. She wants to help the hero in order to convert herself to Christianity and abandon her pagan magic.[86]

A Hungarian tale ("Fisher Joe") tells about an orphan who catches a magical fish that reveals itself as a lovely maiden.[87] A second Magyar tale, "Fairy Elizabeth", is close to the general swan maiden story, only dealing with pidgeon-maidens instead.[88]

A compilation of Central European (Austria and Bohemia) folktales lists four variants of the Swan Maiden narrative: "The Three White Doves";[89] "The Maiden on the Crystal Mountain";[90] "How Hans finds his Wife"[91] and "The Drummer".[92] Theodor Vernaleken, in the German version of the compilation, narrated in his notes two other variants, one from St. Pölten and other from Moldautein (modern day Týn nad Vltavou, in the Czech Republic).[93]

In an Armenian folktale ("Kush-Pari"), a prince seeks the titular Kush-Pari, a Houri-Pari or "Fairy-Bird" ("a nymph of paradise in the shape of a bird", "a golden human-headed bird ... radiant as the sun"), as a present to the king he serves. After being captured, the Kush-Pari reveals to the king she transforms into a maiden after undonning her feather cloak and proposes she becomes his queen after his servant rescues her maid and brings back the fiery mares. Kush-Pari intends to use the fiery mares' milk for a special ritual: the king dies, but the prince survives, who she marries. At the end of the story, her new husband tells his wife that his father is blinded, but she reveals she was the cause for his blindness.[94]

Emmanuel Cosquin collected a French tale titled Chatte Blanche (English: "White Cat"), where the hero Jean is informed that "Plume Verte", "Plume Jaune" and "Plume Noir" come to bathe in the lake in the Black Forest, and is tasked with getting the robes of "Plume Verte".[95]

On his comments on English fairy tale Lady Featherflight,[96] W. W. Newell commented that in the French counterpart of the story, La Plume Verte (English: "The Green Feather"), the name is an indication of her status as bird-maiden.[97] However, it has been noted that, as it happened in both versions, the swan maiden's feathery cloak was replaced by the garment, yet a reminiscence of it is retained in their names.[98]

In Slavic fairy tale King Kojata or Prince Unexpected, the twelve royal daughters of King Kostei take off their geese disguises to bathe in the lake, but the prince hides the clothing of the youngest.[99][100]

In the Swedish tale The Beautiful Palace East of the Sun and North of the Earth, from Smaland, three sons stand guard in a meadow that is being treaded in the past nights, and the youngest discovers the culprits are three dove-maidens.[101]

In Czech tale The Three Doves, the hero hides the three golden feathers of the dove maiden in order to keep her in ther human state. Later on, when she disappears, he embarks on an epic quest to find her.[102]

In a Norwegian tale, Farther South Than South, and Farther North Than North, and in the Great Hill of Gold, youth John of the Ashes is tasked with standing vigil on his father's wheat field, to discover who is responsible for trampling the field every night. He sees three doves who change their feathers and become maidens who trample and dance on the wheat field. He falls in love with the middle one, instead of the youngest - a scenario that occurs in almost every variant.[103]

In a Polish tale by A. J. Glinski, The Princess of The Brazen Mountain,[104] the hero is a prince who steals the pair of wings of the titular princess and proposes to her. On their wedding day, she is given back the wings and flies back to the Brazen Mountain.[105]

In a tale collected by Francis Hindes Groome (The Witch) from a Polish-Gypsy source, the prince dreams of a place where lovely maidens were bathing. He decides to travel the world to find this place. He does so and hides the wings of the youngest maiden. After his wife escapes, he follows her to her family's home, and must work for her sorcerous mother.[106]

Northern Eurasia

In a tale from the Samoyed people of Northern Eurasia, an old woman informs a youth of seven maidens who are bathing in a lake in a dark forest.[107]

Middle East
The swans take flight from the ornate pavillion, leaving their sister behind. Illustration from Hassan of Bassorah by John Batten.

The tale of the swan maiden also appears in the Arab collection of folktales The Arabian Nights,[108] in "The Story of Janshah",[109] a tale inserted in the narrative of The Queen of the Serpents. In a second tale, the story of Hasan of Basrah (Hassan of Bassorah),[110][111] the titular character arrives at a oasis and sees the bird maidens (birds of paradise) undressing their plumages to play in the water.[112]

A third narrative is the tale of Mazin of Khorassan (or Mazin of Khorassaun),[113] supposedly not included in Antoine Galland's translation of the collection: an orphaned dyer, Mazin is invited to a castle where there is a magnificent garden. One afternoon, he rests in the garden and sees the arrival, through the air, of seven maidens wearing "light green silk" robes. He is later informed the seven are sisters to a queen of a race of female genii who live in a distant kingdom.[114] The story of Mazin was noted to be quite similar to Hassan of Bassorah, albeit with differences during the quest.[115]

An Arab tale (Histoire d'Ours de cuisine) begins akin to the swan maiden story: a king owns a fountain in his garden where a maiden with a feathery robe likes to bathe. One night, the king, taken with passion for the girl, fetches her garments from a nearby tree and intends to make her his bride. She consents, on the condition that the king blinds his forty queens.[116]

South Asia

In a Persian story, The Merchant's Son and the Peries, the peris of lore take off their garments and assume human form to bath in the water, until a young man gets their clothes to force one of them to be his wife. The peris try to convince him not to, as they are "creatures of fire" and he, a human, is "made of water and clay".[117]

A story from South Asia also narrates the motif of the swan maiden or bird-princess: Story of Prince Bairâm and the Fairy Bride, whe the titular prince hides the clothing of Ghûlab Bânu, the dove-maiden.[118][119]

East Asia

In ancient Chinese literature, one story from the Dunhuang manuscripts veers close to the general Swan Maiden tale: a poor man named T'ien K'un-lun approaches a lake where three crane maidens are bathing.[120][121]

A tale from Southeastern China and near regions narrates the adventures of a prince who meets a Peacock Maiden, in a tale attributed to the Tai people.[122] The tale is celebrated amongst the Dai people of China and was recorded as a poem and folk story, being known under several names, such as "Shaoshutun", "The Peacock Princess" or "Zhao Shutun and Lanwuluona".[123][124][125]

Africa

A tale collected from the Swahili (Kisa Cha Hassibu Karim ad Dini na Sultani wa Nyoka, or "The Story of Haseebu Kareem ed Deen and the King of the Snakes") also falls under the widespread tale of the Bird Maiden.[126]

Oceania

There have been collected at least thirty-three variants from Papua New Guinea, published in local newspaper Wantok Niuspepa, in a section about traditional tales.[127] Sometimes the swan garment is replaced by a cassowary skin or a bird-of-paradise.[128]

The character of the swan maiden (and her variants) is spread among the many traditions of Oceania, such as in Micronesia.[129]

The celestial maiden or heavenly bride

A second format of the supernatural wife motif pertains to tales where the maiden isn't a shapeshifting animal, but instead a creature or inhabitant of Heaven, a Celestial Realm, or hails from the place where the gods live. Japanese folklorist Seki Keigo names this story "The Wife from the Upper World", in his index of "Types of Japanese Folktales".[130] Professor Alan L. Miller calls it "The Divine Wife", which can also refer to the Swan Maiden tales.[131]

Western works commonly translate the characters in question as "fairies" or "nymphs".

India and South Asia

The motif of the swan maiden is also associated with the Apsaras, of Hinduism, who descend from Heaven or a Celestial Realm to bathe in an earthly lake.[132][133] One example is the ancient tale of apsara Urvasi and king Pururavas.[134][135]

A folk song collected from the state of Chhattisgarh, The Ballad of flower-maid Bakaoli, contains the episode where a male (Lakhiya) is informed by a sadhu about the seven daughters of Indra Rajá (one of which is Bakaoli) who bathe in a lake.[136]

A tale of Dravidian origin tells the story of Prince Jagatalapratapa, who has an encounter with the daughter of Indra and her maids in a grove in forest.[137] A second story of The Dravidian Nights Entertainment, by Natesa Sastri, shows the episode of the prince stealing clothes from a celestial maiden, as part of the prince's search for a special flower.[138]

A story obtained from Santal sources (Toria the Goatherd and the Daughter of the Sun) tells of goatheard Toria, who is invited by the maidens to join them in their leisure in water. While they are distracted, Toria hides the clothing of one of them.[139]

In a Bengali tale, from Dinajpur (The Finding of the Dream), prince Siva Das receives a premonitory dream about a maiden. Some time later, he is informed by a sage that, on a night of full moon, five nymphs descend from the sky to play in a pond, and one of them is the maiden he saw in a dream, named Tillottama.[140]

In a tale from the Karbi people, Harata Kunwar, the youngest of seven brothers, flees for his life from home, after his brothers and father threaten to take his life, and takes refuge with an old lady. After doing his chores, he plans to take a bath in the river, but was told not to go upstream. He does so and sees the six daughters of the King of the Great Palace descending fom the heavend and undressing their clothings to bathe and frolic in the water.[141]

Southeast Asia

A tale from Laos (The Faithful Husband) is also parallel to the widespread narrative of the Swan-Maiden.[142][143]

Other variants from Southeast Asia can be found in Filipino folklore:[144] The Seven Young Sky Women, a tale from the Philippines;[145] Kimod and the Swan Maiden ("Pitong Maylong"), a tale from the Mansaka (Philippines);[146][147][148] Magbolotó, a tale from the Visayan.[149] A version of the tale was also found in the oral narratives of the Agta people of the Philippines (How Juan got hiw Wife from Above).[150]

Indonesia

The plot of a male character spying on seven celestial maidens (Apsaras) bathing in an earthly lake also happens in a tale from Indonesian history, titled Jaka Tarub and Seven Apsaras, from the island of Java,[151][152] starring legendary Javanese hero Jaka Tarub[153][154] who marries the heavenly nymph (Bidadari) Dewi Nawang Wulan.[155][156]

Similar tales were collected from North Sulawesi and Minahasa Peninsula (formerly known as Celebes Islands). One is the tale of Kasimbaha and Utahagi:[157] Kasimbaha fetches the garments of Utahagi, who was bathing in a lake, and, later, after his wife returns to her celestial abode, he climbs a special tree to ascend to the heavens and find her again.[158][159][160] A second tale is interesting in that it differs: instead of bathing in a lake, the heavenly maidens descend to Earth and steal the yams of a human farmer named Walasindouw.[161]

Other tales are attested in the many traditions of the archipelago:[162][163] from the Island of Halmahera, the episode of "stealing maiden's clothing while in a bath" occurs as part of the quest of the youngest of seven brothers for a remedy for his father;[164] from the Island of Bali, the story of Rajapala and vidyadhari Ken Sulasih, parents of hero Durma;[165] the heroic poem Ajar Pikatan, narrating the quest for celestial maiden Suprabha.[166]

East Asia

East Asian folkloric traditions also attest the occurrence of similar tales about celestial maidens, such as the Korean folktale of The Fairy and the Woodcutter.[167][168]

A tale from Lew Chew sources tells of a farmer, Ming-Ling-Tzu, who owns a pristine fountain of the purest water, when he sights a maiden fair bathing in the water source and possibly soiling it.[169]

China

Another related tale is the Chinese myth of the Cowherd and the Weaver Girl,[170][171] in which one of seven fairy sisters is taken as a wife by a cowherd who hid the seven sisters' robes; she becomes his wife because he sees her naked, and not so much due to his taking her robe.[172][173] Chinese literature and mythology attest at least two similar stories: Tian Xian Pei[174][175] ("The Fairy Couple"; "The Marriage of the Fairy Princess" or "Dong Yong, the Filial Son"),[176] and a untitled version in Soushen Ji, as the fifteenth tale in Volume 14.[177][178]

Japan

James Danandjaja relates the Japanese tale of Amafuri Otome ("The Woman who came from the Sky"), as a similar tale of the unmarried mortal man who withholds the kimono from a bathing lady in exchange for her becoming his wife. He also compares it to the Swan Maiden and to the myth of The Cowherd and the Weaver.[179]

Professor Hazel Wigglesworth wrote that there were 46 versions of the tale collected in Japanese oral sources, and the oldest register of the tale is present in the Fudoki, an ancient book on provincial and oral accounts.[180] Tales collected from Ōmi Province (Ika no Woumi) and Suruga Province (Miho Matsubara) are close to the human husband/swan spouse narrative, whereas in a story from Tango Province (Taniha no Kori) it is an elderly couple who strand the celestial maiden on Earth and she becomes their adopted daughter to keep them company.[181]

Africa

Southeast Africa

The narrative of the Sky-Maiden was collected in song form from the Ndau people, titled Legend and Song of the Sky-Maiden: the daughter of a powerful chief who lived in the sky and her attendants go down to Earth to bathe, and it becomes a dare amongst the royal princes to see who can fetch her plume/feather - the symbol of her otherwordliness. The victor is a poor man who, as a subversion of the common narrative, gets to live with his sky-wife in her abode.[182] A version of the tale in narrative form was given as The Sky-People (Vasagole) by Frans Boas and C. Kamba Simango in the Journal of American Folk-Lore.[183]

Madagascar

In a Malagasy tale, obtained from Vàkin-Ankarãtra (The way in which Adrianòro obtained a wife from Heaven), the hero Adrianoro is informed that three maidens bathe in a lake, and tries to set a snare (trap) for them by shapeshifting into fruits or seeds.[184]

Europe

Greece

In a tale from Greece, a human goatherd named Demetros dances with ten fairies three nights, and in the third night, on a full moon, he dances with them and accidentally touches the handkerchief of Katena. Her companions abandon her to the mortal world and she becomes Demetros's wife, bearing him a daughter. For seven years, Demetros has hidden the handkerchief, until his wife Katena asks him for it. She takes the handkerchief and dances with it in a festival, taking the opportunity to return home and leave her mortal husband. Their daughter soon follows when she is fifteen years old.[185]

Bulgaria

A Bulgarian folk song (The Samodiva married against her will) features a Samodiva: three girls, not related to each other, doff their magical garments to bathe, but are seen by a shepherd that takes their clothing. Each girl separately try to plead and convince the youth to return the clothing. He does so - but only to the first two; the third maiden he chose to wed after she revealed she was an only child. After the wedding, the village insists she dances for the amusement of everyone else, but the samodiva says she cannot dance without her garment. Once her husband delivers her the clothing, she flies away.[186]

The Star Wife or Star Women

A third occurrence of the supernatural spouse from above is the Star Women, a motif that scholar see a possible relation with the Swan Maiden motif.[187]

Native American

The motif of the Star Maiden can be found in Native American folklore and mythology,[188] as the character of the Star Wife:[189] she usually descends from heaven in a basket along with her sisters to play in a prairie or to bathe in a lake, and a mortal male, entranced by her figure, plans to make her his own. It is later discovered that she is a maiden from the stars or a star herself who came down to Earth.[190]

In a Sioux legend, the human hunter marries the Star Wife and fathers a son. Mother and child escape to the Star-realm, but begin to miss the human father. Her father suggests they bring him there to reunite the family, and they do so.[191]

In a third variation, an inversion occurs: the hunter is taken in a basket to the Star-country in order o live with his Star Wife. However, he begins to miss his human mother. So, with the aid of a pair of red swan's wings for him and his wife, they return to the human world.[192]

Philippines

In a tale collected from the "Nabaloi" (Ibaloi people) (The star wives), an indigenous ethnic group in the Philippines, the stars themselves descend from heaven and bathe in a lake in Batan. The local males hide the stars' clothing, which allow the stars to fly, and marry them. Eventually the men grow old, but the stars retain their youth, regain their clothings and return to the skies.[193]

Literature and fantasy novels

Modern writer Rosamund Marriott Watson, under the nom-de-plume Graham R. Tomson, wrote a ballad from the point of view of an Inuit hunter who marries the grey gull maiden and laments her departure.[194]

Victorian novelist and translator William Morris wrote his poetic ouvre The Earthly Paradise, in which there is a narration by a bard of the romance between a human and a swan maiden, comprising an episode of the poem The Land East of the Sun and West of the Moon.[195][196][197]

Pop culture appearances include modern novels of the fantasy genre such as Three Hearts and Three Lions. Recently, swan-men in the Anita Blake series, including Kaspar Gunderson. They are also called swan mays or swanmays in fantasy fiction and Dungeons and Dragons. In the Mercedes Lackey book, Fortune's Fool, one swan maiden (named Yulya) from a flock of six is kidnapped by a Jinn.

Elven princess Eärwen in The Silmarillion by J.R.R. Tolkien was referred to as the "swan maiden of Alqualonde".

Film and animation

The animal bride theme is explored in an animated film called The Red Turtle (2016).

Princess Pari Banu from the 1926 German silhouette animation film The Adventures of Prince Achmed appears very similar to a swan maiden, having a peacock skin that transforms her and her handmaids, though she is referred to as a fairy or genie, in the original 1001 Nights.

Modern appearances of the swan maiden include television such as Astroboy Episode 5.

An episode of children's television programming Super Why adapted the tale of the Swan Maiden.

Eastern media

The anime/manga Ceres, Celestial Legend (Ayashi no Ceres) by Yu Watase is a similar story about an angel whose magic source is stolen as she bathes and she becomes wife to the man who stole it. The story follows one of her descendants now carrying the angel's revenge-driven reincarnated spirit inside her.

The manhwa Faeries' Landing translates the Korean folktale of The Fairy and the Woodcutter to a modern setting.

Video games

The theme is also explored in modern fantasy video game Heroine's Quest.

The eleventh installment of hidden object game series Dark Parables (The Swan Princess and the Dire Tree), published by Eipix mixes the motif of the swan maidens and the medieval tale of The Knight of the Swan. The sixteenth installment, Portrait of the Stained Princess, introduces the Knight of Swan himself, enchanted to never reveal his true name to his beloved.

See also

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Further reading
  • Leavy, Barbara Fass (1994). "Urvaśī and the Swan Maidens". In Search of the Swan Maiden. NYU Press. pp. 33–63. JSTOR j.ctt9qg995.5.
  • Leavy, Barbara Fass (1994). "Swan Maiden and Incubus". In Search of the Swan Maiden. NYU Press. pp. 156–195. JSTOR j.ctt9qg995.8.
  • Leavy, Barbara Fass (1994). "The Animal Bride". In Search of the Swan Maiden. NYU Press. pp. 196–244. JSTOR j.ctt9qg995.9.
  • Burson, Anne (1983). "Swan Maidens and Smiths: A Structural Study of "Völundarkviða"". Scandinavian Studies. 55 (1): 1–19. JSTOR 40918267.
  • Grange, Isabelle (1983). "Métamorphoses chrétiennes des femmes-cygnes: Du folklore à l'hagiographie". Ethnologie Française. 13 (2): 139–150. JSTOR 40988761.
  • Hartland, E. Sidney. The science of fairy tales: An inquiry into fairy mythology. London: W. Scott. pp. 255-332.
  • Hatto, A. T. (1961). "The Swan Maiden: A Folk-Tale of North Eurasian Origin?". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 24 (2): 326–352. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00091461. JSTOR 610171.
  • Holmström, H. (1919). Studier över svanjungfrumotivet i Volundarkvida och annorstädes (A study on the motif of the swan maiden in Volundarkvida, with annotations). Malmö: Maiander.
  • Kleivan, Inge. The Swan Maiden Myth Among the Eskimo. København: Ejnar Munksgaard. 1962.
  • Kobayashi, Fumihiko (2007). "The Forbidden Love in Nature. Analysis of the "Animal Wife" Folktale in Terms of Content Level, Structural Level, and Semantic Level". Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore. 36: 141–152. doi:10.7592/FEJF2007.36.kobayashi.
  • Kovalchuk, Lidia (2018). "Conceptual Integration of Swan Maiden Image in Russian and English Fairytales". The European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences: 68–74. doi:10.15405/epsbs.2018.04.02.10. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • Mänchen-Helfen, Otto (1936). "Das Märchen von der Schwanenjungfrau in Japan". T'oung Pao. 32 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1163/156853236X00010. JSTOR 4527075.
  • Newell, W. W. (1893). "Lady Featherflight. An English Folk-Tale". The Journal of American Folklore. 6 (20): 54–62. doi:10.2307/534281. JSTOR 534281.
  • Newell, W. W. (1903). "Sources of Shakespeare's Tempest". The Journal of American Folklore. 16 (63): 234–257. doi:10.2307/533373. JSTOR 533373.
  • Peterson, Martin Severin (1930). "Some Scandinavian Elements in a Micmac Swan Maiden Story". Scandinavian Studies and Notes. 11 (4): 135–138. JSTOR 40915312.
  • Petkova, G. (2009). "Propp and the Japanese folklore: Applying morphological parsing to answer questions concerning the specifics of the Japanese fairy tale". doi:10.5167/uzh-23802. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • Tawney, Charles Henry. The ocean of story, being C.H. Tawney's translation of Somadeva's Katha sarit sagara (or Ocean of streams of story). Book 8. London, Priv. print. for subscribers only by C.J. Sawyer. 1924-1928. Appendix I. pp. 213-234.
  • Thomson, Stith. Tales of the North American Indians. 1929. pp. 150-174.
  • Tuzin, Donald F. The Cassowary's Revenge: The life and death of masculinity in a New Guinea society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1997. pp. 68-89.
  • Utley, Francis Lee; Austerlitz, Robert; Bauman, Richard; Bolton, Ralph; Count, Earl W.; Dundes, Alan; Erickson, Vincent; Farmer, Malcolm F.; Fischer, J. L.; Hultkrantz, Åke; Kelley, David H.; Peek, Philip M.; Pretty, Graeme; Rachlin, C. K.; Tepper, J. (1974). "The Migration of Folktales: Four Channels to the Americas [and Comments and Reply]". Current Anthropology. 15 (1): 5–27. doi:10.1086/201428. JSTOR 2740874.
  • Wrigglesworth, Hazel J. The Maiden of Many Nations: the Skymaiden Who Married a Man From Earth. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, 1991.
  • Young, Serinity. Women who fly: goddesses, witches, mystics, and other airborne females. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2018. ISBN 978-0195307887
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