Society of the Cincinnati

The Society of the Cincinnati is a hereditary society with branches in the United States and France, founded in 1783, to preserve the ideals and fellowship of officers of the Continental Army who served in the Revolutionary War. Now in its third century, the Society promotes the public interest in the Revolution through its library and museum collections, publications, and other activities. It is the oldest hereditary society in America. Although restricted to lineal male descendants, there is a partnership society called Daughters of the Cincinnati which permits all female descendants of Continental officers.

Society of the Cincinnati
Portrait of Lieutenant General George Washington, President General of the Society of the Cincinnati, by Edward Savage, 1790, (Harvard Art Museums).
Named afterLucius Quinctius Cincinnatus
Motto"Omnia reliquit servare republicam" (Latin)
"He left everything to save the republic"
EstablishedMay 13, 1783 (1783-05-13)
FounderMajor General Henry Knox
Founded atFishkill, New York
TypePatriotic-Hereditary society
HeadquartersAnderson House, Washington, D.C.
Coordinates38.9107011°N 77.0477045°W / 38.9107011; -77.0477045
Region served
United States and France
Official language
English
William Pless Lunger
Frank Keech Turner, Jr.
Joel Thomas Daves IV
Francis Ellerbe Grimball
Key people
Executive Director
Jack Duane Warren, Jr.
Main organ
Triennial Meeting
Websitesocietyofthecincinnati.org

History
Cincinnatus abandons the plow to dictate laws to Rome, by Juan Antonio Ribera, (Museo del Prado).
See also: List of original members of the Society of the Cincinnati

The Society is named after Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, who left his farm to accept a term as Roman Consul and served as Magister Populi (with temporary powers similar to that of a modern-era dictator). He assumed lawful dictatorial control of Rome to meet a war emergency. When the battle was won, he returned power to the Senate and went back to plowing his fields. The Society's motto reflects that ethic of selfless service: Omnia reliquit servare rempublicam ("He relinquished everything to save the Republic").[1] The Society has had three goals: "To preserve the rights so dearly won; to promote the continuing union of the states; and to assist members in need, their widows, and their orphans."

The concept of the Society of the Cincinnati was that of Major-General Henry Knox.[2] The first meeting of the Society was held in May 1783 at a dinner at the Verplanck House (present-day Mount Gulian), Fishkill, New York, before the British evacuation from New York City. The meeting was presided by Major General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Hamilton was the orator. The participants agreed to stay in contact with each other after the war.[3] Mount Gulian, von Steuben′s headquarters, is considered the birthplace of the Society of the Cincinnati, where the Institution was formally adopted on May 13, 1783.[4][5]

Membership was generally limited to officers who had served at least three years in the Continental Army or Navy; it included officers of the French Army and Navy above certain ranks. Officers in the Continental Line who died during the War were also entitled to be recorded as members, and membership would devolve to their eldest male heir. Members of the considerably larger fighting forces comprising the Colonial Militias and Minutemen were not entitled to join the Society. Within 12 months of the founding, a constituent Society had been organized in each of the 13 states and in France. Of about 5,500 men originally eligible for membership, 2,150 had joined within a year. King Louis XVI ordained the French Society of the Cincinnati, which was organized on July 4, 1784 (Independence Day). Up to that time, the King of France had not allowed his officers to wear any foreign decorations, but he made an exception in favor of the badge of the Cincinnati.

The Verplanck House (present-day Mount Gulian), Fishkill, New York, Steuben's head-quarters, where the Society was instituted May 13, 1783.

Later in the 18th century, the Society's rules adopted a system of primogeniture wherein membership was passed down to the eldest son after the death of the original member. Present-day hereditary members generally must be descended from an officer who served in the Continental Army or Navy for at least three years, from an officer who died or was killed in service, or from an officer serving at the close of the Revolution. Each officer may be represented by only one descendant at any given time, following the rules of primogeniture. (The rules of eligibility and admission are controlled by each of the 14 Constituent Societies to which members are admitted. They differ slightly in each society, and some allow more than one descendant of an eligible officer.) The requirement for primogeniture made the society controversial in its early years, as the new states quickly did away with laws supporting primogeniture as remnants of the English feudal system.

George Washington was elected the first President General of the Society. He served from December 1783 until his death in 1799. The second President General was Alexander Hamilton. Upon Hamilton's death the third President General of the Society was Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.

The society's members have included notable military and political leaders, including 23 of the 39 signers of the United States Constitution.

Insignia
Insignia of the Society, ca. 1783.

On June 19, 1783, the General Society of the Cincinnati adopted the bald eagle as its insignia. (The insignia was originally referred to as an "order" in the Society's records.) It is one of America's first post-revolution symbols and an important piece of American iconography. It is the second official American emblem to use the bald eagle, following the Great Seal of the United States. The insignia may have been derived from the same discourse that produced the seal.

The suggestion of the bald eagle as the Cincinnati insignia was made by Major Pierre L'Enfant, a French officer who joined the American Army in 1777, served in the Corps of Engineers, and became one of the first members of the Society. He observed that "[t]he Bald Eagle, which is unique to this continent, and is distinguished from those of other climates by its white head and tail, appears to me to deserve attention."[6] In 1783, L'Enfant was commissioned to travel to France to have the first eagle badges made, based on his design. (L'Enfant later planned and partially laid out the city of Washington, D.C.)

The medallions at the center of the Cincinnati Eagle depict, on the obverse, Cincinnatus receiving his sword from Roman senators and, on the reverse, Cincinnatus at his plow being crowned by the figure of Pheme (a personification of fame). The Society's colors, light blue and white, symbolize the fraternal bond between the United States and France. While all Cincinnati eagles conform to this general design, there is no single specific design which is official. Over the years, over 50 different variations of the eagle have been produced - in varying degrees of size, quality and number produced.

A unique diamond encrusted "eagle", referred to as the "Diamond Eagle", was gifted to George Washington by Admiral Comte d'Estaing, on behalf the officers of the French Navy. It was received by Washington on May 11, 1784 at the meeting of the General Society in Philadelphia. Upon Washington's death, in 1799, it was given by his heirs to Alexander Hamilton, who succeeded Washington as President of the Society. Upon Hamilton's death it was given to Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, who succeeded Hamilton as the Society's president. It has ever since served as the official insignia of the Society's president and is transferred when a new president takes office. In the late 20th Century, a copy of the Diamond Eagle was made, which is worn by the president on occasions other than the Triennial Meeting.[7]

A specially commissioned "eagle" worn by President General George Washington was presented to Marquis de Lafayette in 1824 during his grand tour of the United States. This badge remained in possession of the Lafayette family[8] until sold at auction on December 11, 2007, for 5.3 million USD by Lafayette's great-great granddaughter. Together with what are believed to be the original ribbon and red leather box, the badge was purchased by the Josée and René de Chambrun Foundation for display in Lafayette's bedroom at Chateau La Grange, his former home, thirty miles east of Paris; it may also be displayed at Mount Vernon, Washington's former home in Virginia.[9] This was one of three eagles known to have been owned by Washington, who most often wore the "diamond eagle," a diamond-encrusted badge given him by the French matelots (sailors). That diamond eagle continues to be passed down to each President General of the Society of the Cincinnati as part of his induction into office.

The Cincinnati Eagle is displayed in various places of public importance, including Sawyer Point in Cincinnati (named for the Society), Ohio. A popular public square was built here to house a 15' bronze statue of Cincinnatus flanked by four masts flying the American, state, city, and Society flags. The flag of the Society displays blue and white stripes and a dark blue canton (containing a circle of 14 stars around the Cincinnati Eagle, representing the fourteen subsidiary societies) in the upper corner next to the hoist. Refer to the section below for the city's historical connection to the Cincinnati.

By Federal law, on ceremonial occasions, Society members may wear their eagles on their American military uniforms.[10] In practice, however, this has been rarely done since the early 20th Century.

Criticism

When news of the foundation of the society spread, judge Aedanus Burke published several pamphlets under the pseudonym Cassius where he criticized the society as an attempt at reestablishing a hereditary nobility in the new republic.[11] The pamphlets, entitled An Address to the Freemen of South Carolina (January 1783) and Considerations on the Society or Order of Cincinnati (October 1783) sparked a general debate that included prominent names, including Thomas Jefferson[12] and John Adams.[13] The criticism voiced concern about the apparent creation of an hereditary elite; membership eligibility is inherited through primogeniture, and generally excluded enlisted men and militia officers, unless they were placed under "State Line" or "Continental Line" forces for a substantial time period, and their descendants.

Benjamin Franklin was among the Society's earliest critics. He was concerned about the creation of a quasi-noble order, and of the Society's use of the eagle in its emblem, as evoking the traditions of heraldry and the English aristocracy. In a letter to his daughter Sarah Bache written on January 26, 1784, Franklin commented on the ramifications of the Cincinnati:

I only wonder that, when the united Wisdom of our Nation had, in the Articles of Confederation, manifested their Dislike of establishing Ranks of Nobility, by Authority either of the Congress or of any particular State, a Number of private persons should think proper to distinguish themselves and their Posterity, from their fellow Citizens, and form an Order of hereditary Knights, in direct Opposition to the solemnly declared Sense of their Country.[14]

The influence of the Cincinnati members, former officers, was another concern. When delegates to the Constitutional Convention were debating the method of choosing a president, James Madison (the secretary of the Convention) reported the following speech of Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts:

A popular election in this case is radically vicious. The ignorance of the people would put it in the power of some one set of men dispersed through the Union & acting in Concert to delude them into any appointment. He observed that such a Society of men existed in the Order of the Cincinnati. They are respectable, United, and influential. They will in fact elect the chief Magistrate in every instance, if the election be referred to the people. [Gerry's] respect for the characters composing this Society could not blind him to the danger & impropriety of throwing such a power into their hands.[15]

The debate spread to France on account of the eligibility of French veterans from the Revolutionary War. In 1785 Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau was approached by Franklin, who was at the time stationed in Paris and suggested to him to write something about the society directed at the French public.[16] Mirabeau was provided with Burke's pamphlets and Franklin's letter to his daughter, and from this, with the help of Nicolas Chamfort, created his own enlarged version entitled Considérations sur l'Ordre de Cincinnatus which was published in London November that year, an English translation carried out by Samuel Romilly followed, of which an American edition was published in 1786.[17]

Following this public debate and criticism, George Washington, who had been unaware of the particulars of the charter when he agreed to become president of the society, began to have doubts about the benefit of the society. He had in fact considered abolishing the society on its very first general meeting May 4, 1784.[18] However, in the meantime Major L'Enfant had arrived bringing his designs of the diplomas and medals, as well as news of the success of the society in France, which made an abolishment of the society impossible. Washington instead at the meeting launched an ultimatum, that if the clauses about heredity were not abandoned, he would resign from his post as president of the society. This was accepted, and furthermore informal agreement was made not to wear the eagles in public, so as not to resemble European chivalrous orders. A new charter, the so-called Institution, was printed, which omitted among others the disputed clauses about heredity. This was sent to the local chapters for approval, and it was approved in all of them except for the chapters in New York, New Hampshire and Delaware. However, when the public furor about the society had died down, the new Institution was rescinded, and the original reintroduced, including the clauses about heredity.[19] The French chapter, who had obtained official permission to form from the king Louis XVI of France, also abolished heredity, but never reintroduced it, and thus the last members were approved February 3, 1792, shortly before the French monarchy was disbanded.[20]

Later activities

City development by early members

The members of the Cincinnati were among those developing many of America's first and largest cities to the west of the Appalachians, most notably Cincinnati, Ohio and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

The first governor of the Northwest Territory, Arthur St. Clair, was a member of the Society. He renamed a small settlement "Cincinnati" to honor the Society and to encourage settlement by Society members. Among them were Captain Jacob Piatt, who settled across the river from Cincinnati in northern Kentucky on land granted to him for his service during the War. Captain David Ziegler was the first Mayor of Cincinnati.

Lt. Ebenezer Denny (1761–1822), an original Pennsylvanian Cincinnatus, was elected the first mayor of the incorporated city of Pittsburgh in 1816. Pittsburgh developed from Fort Pitt, which had been commanded since 1777–1783 by four men who were founding members of the Society.

Richard Varick was a Mayor of New York City.

Public awareness

Today's Society supports efforts to increase public awareness and memory of the ideals and actions of the men who created the American Revolution and an understanding of American history, with an emphasis on the period from the outset of the Revolution to the War of 1812. At its headquarters at Anderson House in Washington, DC, the Society holds manuscript, portrait, and model collections pertaining to events of and military science during this period.[21] Members of the Society have contributed to endow professorships, lecture series, awards, and educational materials in relation to the United States' representative democracy.[22] The definition and acceptance of membership has remained with the constituent societies rather than with the General Society in Washington.

The Society maintains a tradition of service in American government, especially in the federal executive branch. Members of the society have served in the Armed Forces, the State Department and other parts of the executive branch.

Membership rules

Over the years, membership rules have continued as first established. They provide for approving the application of a collateral heir if the direct male line dies out. Membership has been expanded in some state societies to include descendants of those who died during the war, but it remains limited.

An officer of the Continental army during the Revolutionary War can generally be represented in the Society of The Cincinnati by only one descendant at a time. The only U.S. President who was a true hereditary member was Franklin Pierce. The General Society no longer admits honorary members. Andrew Jackson and Zachary Taylor were honorary members before becoming presidents. Other presidents became honorary members while in office, and after leaving office. Each of the fourteen constituent societies has honorary members, but these men cannot designate an heir (referred to as a successor member).[23]

Cox Book Prize

The Society of the Cincinnati Prize recognizes the author of an outstanding work that advances understanding of the American Revolution and its legacy. Established in 1989 as a triennial award, the prize is now presented annually.[24]

Since 1989, the authors awarded this prize are as follows:[24]

  • 1989 – Bernard Bailyn, Voyagers to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the Revolution
  • 1992 – P. D. G. Thomas, Tea Party to Independence: The Third Phase of the American Revolution
  • 1995 – Stanley M. Elkins and Eric L. McKitrick, The Age of Federalism
  • 1998 – Jack N. Rakove, Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution
  • 2001 – Saul Cornell, The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America
  • 2004 – Elizabeth Fenn, Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–1782
  • 2007 – Alan Taylor, The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution
  • 2010 – Matthew H. Spring, With Zeal and With Bayonets Only: The British Army on Campaign in North America, 1775–1783
  • 2013 – Benjamin L. Carp, Defiance of the Patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the Making of America
  • 2018 – Eric Hinderaker, Boston's Massacre

Headquarters
Main article: Larz Anderson House
The General Society in Washington, D.C. makes Anderson House and its ballroom available for private events.

The General Society is headquartered at Anderson House, also known as the Larz Anderson House, at 2118 Massachusetts Avenue, NW in the Dupont Circle neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The Anderson House also serves as a Society museum and research library. It is located on the Embassy Row section, near international embassies.

Anderson House was built between 1902 and 1905 as the winter residence of Larz Anderson, an American diplomat, and his wife, Isabel Weld Perkins, an author and American Red Cross volunteer. The architects Arthur Little and Herbert Browne of Boston designed Anderson House in the Beaux-Arts style. Anderson House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971 and was further designated a National Historic Landmark in 1996.[25][26]

The General Society's museum collections include portraits, armaments, and personal artifacts of Revolutionary War soldiers; commemorative objects; objects associated with the history of the Society and its members, including Cincinnati china and insignia; portraits and personal artifacts of members of the Anderson family; and artifacts related to the history of the house, including the U.S. Navy's occupation of it during World War II.

Library

The library of the General Society of the Cincinnati collects, preserves, and makes available for research printed and manuscript materials relating to the military and naval history of the eighteenth century and early nineteenth century, with a particular concentration on the people and events of the American Revolution and the War of 1812. The collection includes a variety of modern and rare materials including official military documents, contemporary accounts and discourses, manuscripts, maps, graphic arts, literature, and many works on naval art and science. In addition, the library is the home to the archives of the Society of the Cincinnati as well as a collection of material relating to Larz and Isabel Anderson. The library is open to researchers by appointment.

American Revolution Institute

The Society of the Cincinnati in the State of New Hampshire owns and operates through a board of governors the American Independence Museum in Exeter, New Hampshire. The American Independence Museum is a private, not-for-profit institution whose mission is to provide a place for the study, research, education and interpretation of the American Revolution and of the role that New Hampshire, Exeter, and the Gilman family played in the founding of the new republic. Museum collections include two rare drafts of the U.S. Constitution, an original Dunlap Broadside of the United States Declaration of Independence, as well as an original Badge of Military Merit, awarded by George Washington to soldiers demonstrating extraordinary bravery. Exhibits highlight the Society of the Cincinnati, the nation's oldest veterans' society, and its first president, George Washington. Permanent collections include American furnishings, ceramics, silver, textiles and military ephemera. See below for a link to the museum.

Affiliations
  • American Philosophical Society: many Cincinnati were among its first board members and contributors; the modern societies maintain informal, collegial relationships only

Notable original members
See also: List of original members of the Society of the Cincinnati

Notable hereditary members

Military and naval officers

Government officials
  • President Franklin Pierce
  • Rt. Hon. Sir Winston Churchill KG, CH, FRS – Hereditary member of the Connecticut society; his great-grandson, Duncan Sandys, is currently a hereditary member of the Massachusetts Society.
  • Secretary of State, Senator and Governor Hamilton Fish – Long-time President General of the Society.
  • Secretary of War Newton D. Baker
  • Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
  • Supreme Court Justice Stanley Forman Reed
  • Governor and United States Senator William H. Bulkeley – Governor of Connecticut and president of Aetna Insurance Company.
  • Governor Horatio Seymour – Governor of New York.
  • Governor DeWitt Clinton – Governor of New York, U.S. Senator and Mayor of New York City.
  • Governor Wilbur L. Cross
  • Governor Elisha Dyer, Jr. – Governor of Rhode Island.
  • Governor Wade Hampton III – Governor of South Carolina.
  • Governor William W. Hoppin – Governor of Rhode Island.
  • Governor Charles Warren Lippitt – Governor of Rhode Island.
  • Governor Robert Milligan McLane – Governor of Maryland and ambassador to France.
  • Governor LeBaron Bradford Prince – Governor of New Mexico Territory.
  • Governor Thomas Stockton – Governor of Delaware.
  • Governor and Senator George Peabody Wetmore
  • Ambassador Larz Anderson – Socialite and diplomat.
  • Ambassador Robert W. Bingham
  • Minister Nicholas Fish II – Minister to Belgium.
  • Senator Warren R. Austin
  • Senator James Watson - United States Senator from New York; a founder (1805) and the first president of the New England Society of New York.
  • Senator Chauncey Depew – Founder of the Pilgrims Society.
  • Senator Charles Mathias – United States Senator from Maryland.
  • Senator Claiborne Pell – Long serving senator from Rhode Island.
  • Senator Hugh Doggett Scott, Jr. – Congressman and United States senator from Pennsylvania.
  • Senator Charles Sumner – Abolitionist senator from Massachusetts.
  • Congressman Horace Binney
  • Congressman Hamilton Fish II
  • Chief Justice of the South Carolina Supreme Court Milledge Lipscomb Bonham

Others

Notable honorary members

Since its inception, the Society of the Cincinnati has allowed for honorary members to be admitted who have distinguished themselves in military or public service.

Presidents of the United States

Note – Every president who served in the eras of 1885 to 1923 (38 years) and from 1929 to 1953 (24 years) was an honorary member of the Society. Presidents George Washington and James Monroe were original members of the Society and President Franklin Pierce was an hereditary member. Zachary Taylor was admitted as an honorary member of the New York Society in 1847, and could have been a hereditary member of the Virginia Society by right of his father, Lieutenant Colonel Richard Taylor (d. 1826), had it been active at the time of his father's death.

Nobel Peace Prize recipients

Nobel Prize for Literature recipient
  • Winston Churchill (1953) (could have been an hereditary member of the Massachusetts Society as his grandson now is)

Marine Corps officers

Army officers

Government officials

Civilians

Foreigners
  • King of the Belgians Albert I
  • Comte Ferdinand de Chalendar
  • Marshal of France Ferdinand Foch
  • King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden
  • President of France Emile Loubet
  • Marshal of France Robert Nivelle
  • Marshal of France Henri-Philippe Petain

See also

Notes
  1. Lewis, Alonzo Norton. The Venerable and Illustrious Order of the Cincinnati : "Omnia reliquit servare rempublicam." : 1783–1900 : History of the Connecticut State Society, Hartford, Conn., 1900.
  2. Chernow, 2010, p.444
  3. Pils, 2008, p. 184
  4. About Mount Gulian
  5. The Founding of the Society, 1783–1784
  6. Autograph letter signed. Pierre L'Enfant to Baron de Steuben, June 10, 1783. Society of the Cincinnati Archives, Washington, D.C.
  7. Precedents and Ordinances of the General Society of the Cincinnati, 1783-1885. Asa Bird Gardiner. pg. 13.
  8. "Sotheby's to Sell Badge Owned by Washington and Lafayette". Maine Antique Digest.
  9. "Washington medal sells in NYC for $5.3M". Associated Press. December 11, 2007.
  10. "Title 10 - Armed Forces" (PDF). Gpo.gov. p. 707. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
  11. Doyle, 2009, p. 102ff.
  12. Doyle, 2009, p. 114ff.
  13. Doyle, 2009, p. 133ff.
  14. Sparks, Jared (1844). The Works of Benjamin Franklin: Containing Several Political and Historical Tracts Not Included in Any Former Edition, and Many Letters, Official and Private, Not Hitherto Published; with Notes and a Life of the Author, Volume 10. Louisville, Kentucky: Charles Tappan. p. 58. Dislike of establishing Ranks of Nobility.
  15. "The Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787, reported by James Madison", 25 July 1787 Archived August 29, 2006, at the Wayback Machine, Yale Law School
  16. Doyle, 2009, p. 122.
  17. Doyle, 2009, p. 123.
  18. Doyle, 2009, p. 115-16.
  19. Doyle, 2009, p. 117-18.
  20. Doyle, 2009, p. 131.
  21. "The Society of the Cincinnati". Societyofthecincinnati.org. Retrieved September 2, 2012.
  22. "The Society of the Cincinnati: Strategic Vision". Societyofthecincinnati.org. Retrieved September 2, 2012.
  23. "Society of the Cincinnati - About Membership".
  24. "Cox Book Prize". The Society of the Cincinnati. Retrieved January 16, 2019.
  25. "Anderson House". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Archived from the original on April 21, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
  26. "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007.

Bibliography
  • Buck, William Bowen. The Society of the Cincinnati in the State of New Jersey. The John L. Murphy Publishing Company, Printers for the Society of the Cincinnati in the State of New Jersey, 1898.
  • Callahan, North (1958). Henry Knox: General Washington's General. Rinehart.
  • Chernow, Ron (2010). Washington: A Life. Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-59420-266-7.* Davis, Curtis Carroll. Revolution's Godchild: The Birth, Death, and Regeneration of the Society of the Cincinnati in North Carolina. The University of North Carolina Press for the North Carolina Society of the Cincinnati, 1976.
  • Doyle, William (2009). "Chapter 4: "Aristocracy Avoided: America and the Cincinnati" (pages 86–137)". Aristocracy and its enemies in the age of revolution. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199559855.
  • Hill, Steven. The Delaware Cincinnati: 1783-1988. Dorrance & Company, Inc. for the Delaware Cincinnati Charitable Trust, 1988.
  • Hoey, Edwin. "A New and Strange Order of Men," American Heritage. (v. 19, issue 5) August 1968.
  • Hünemörder, Markus. The Society of the Cincinnati: Conspiracy and Distrust in Early America. Berghahn Books, 2006.
  • Lossing, Benson John Pictoral Fieldbook of the Revolution. Volume I. 1850.
  • Metcalf, Bryce. Original Members and Other Officers Eligible to the Society of the Cincinnati. Shenandoah Publishing House, Inc., 1938.
  • Myers, Minor. Liberty Without Anarchy: A History of the Society of the Cincinnati. University of Virginia Press, 1983.
  • Olson, Lester C. Benjamin Franklin's Vision of American Community: A Study in Rhetorical Iconology. University of South Carolina Press, 2004.
  • Puls, Mark (2008). Henry Knox: Visionary General of the American Revolution. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-2306-1142-9.
  • Warren, Winslow. The Society of the Cincinnati: A History of the General Society of the Cincinnati with the Institution of the Order, Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati, 1929.
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