Reparations for slavery in the United States

Reparations for slavery is the application of the concept of reparations to victims of slavery and/or their descendants. There are concepts for reparations in legal philosophy and reparations in transitional justice. In the US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling in court and/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals and institutions.[1][2]

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This idea has been recurring in the politics of the United States, from the 1865 Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule") to the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.[3] The idea of reparations remains highly controversial.[4][5]

The first known case of reparations for slavery in the United States was in 1783 to Belinda Royall in the form of a pension, and since then it has been and continues to be proposed and/or given in a variety of forms.

Forms of reparations which have been proposed or given in the United State by city, county, state, and national governments or private institutions include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, and systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation related to independence, apologies and acknowledgements of the injustices, tokenary measures (such as naming a building after someone),[2] and the removal of monuments and streets named to slave owners and defenders of slavery.[6][7]

Since further injustices and discrimination have continued since slavery was explicitly legal in the US,[8][9][10][11][12] reparations for non-slavery related injustices have also been called for along-side slavery related reparations by black communities and civil rights organizations.[5][6] Some suggest that the U.S. prison system starting with the convict lease system and continuing through the present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), is a modern form of legal slavery that still primarily and disproportionately affects black populations and other minorities via the war on drugs and what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.[13]

In 2020, the call for reparations in the US has been bolstered by protests of police brutality and other cases of systemic racism in the US.[14] Recently in the US, the call for reparations for racism in the US has been made along side calls for reparations for slavery.[15][6]

U.S. historical context

The arguments surrounding reparations are based on the formal discussion about many different reparations, and actual land reparations received by African Americans which were later taken away. In 1865, after the Confederate States of America were defeated in the American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure the harmony of action in the area of operations"[16] and to solve problems caused by the masses of freed slaves, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land in the sea islands and around Charleston, South Carolina for the exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. The army also had a number of unneeded mules which were given to settlers. Around 40,000 freed slaves were settled on 400,000 acres (1,600 km²) in Georgia and South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed the order after Lincoln was assassinated, the land was returned to its previous owners, and the blacks were forced to leave. In 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill for the redistribution of land to African Americans, but it was not passed.

Reconstruction came to an end in 1877 without the issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation and oppression arose in southern states. Jim Crow laws passed in some southeastern states to reinforce the existing inequality that slavery had produced. In addition white extremist organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan engaged in a massive campaign of terrorism throughout the Southeast in order to keep African Americans in their prescribed social place. For decades this assumed inequality and injustice was ruled on in court decisions and debated in public discourse.

In one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued for compensation after having been kidnapped from the free state of Ohio and sold into slavery in Mississippi. After the American Civil War, she was freed and returned to Cincinnati, where she won her case in federal court in 1878, receiving $2,500 in damages. Though the verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.[17]

The topic became an prominent theme during the Democratic presidential primary as issues surrounding race in the 2020 primary election.[18] It was further amplified due to the African American people dying prematurely and disproportionately of many ills of COVID-19 pandemic. And ongoing systemic racism in the killings of Black Americans; Ahmaud Arbery by three white men in Georgia, Police officers killings of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, was fatally shot by Louisville Metro Police Department,and George Floyd a Black American man killed during an arrest after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill by Minneapolis police that sparked the George Floyd protests[19] which spurred the removal of confederate monuments in many states.[20] In some instances, reparations for slavery have been placed alongside call for systemic change to resolve racial injustice and/or reparations for systemic racism, including the call to defund the police.[6]

Proposals for reparations

United States government

Some proposals have called for direct payments from the U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. Harper's Magazine estimated that the total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 and 1865, regardless the United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after the Revolutionary War in 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".[21] Should all or part of this amount be paid to the descendants of slaves in the United States, the current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of that cost, since it has been in existence only since 1789.

The Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, was one of the earliest leaders to argue clearly for "retroactive compensation" and the message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. On July 28, 1951, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing the text: "Peace! All nations and peoples who have suppressed and oppressed the under-privileged, they will be obliged to pay the African slaves and their descendants for all uncompensated servitude and for all unjust compensation, whereby they have been unjustly deprived of compensation on the account of previous condition of servitude and the present condition of servitude. This is to be accomplished in the defense of all other under-privileged subjects and must be paid retroactive up-to-date".[22]

At the first National Reparations Convention in Chicago in 2001, a proposal by Howshua Amariel, a Chicago social activist, would require the federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks who wish to remain in America, they should receive reparations in the form of free education, free medical, free legal and free financial aid for 50 years with no taxes levied," and "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars or more, backed by gold, in reparation." At the convention Amariel's proposal received approval from the 100 or so participants,[23] nevertheless the question of who would receive such payments, who should pay them and in what amount, has remained highly controversial,[24][25] since the United States Census does not track descent from slaves or slave owners and relies on self-reported racial categories.

On July 30, 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws.[26]

There have been 9 states that have officially apologized for their involvement in the enslavement of Africans. Those states are:

  • Alabama – 04-25-07[27]
  • Connecticut
  • Delaware – 02-11-16[28]
  • Florida – 2008[27]
  • Maryland – 2007[27]
  • New Jersey – 2008[27]
  • North Carolina – 2007[29]
  • Tennessee
  • Virginia – 2007[27]

In April 2010, Harvard professor Henry Louis Gates in a New York Times editorial advised reparations activists to consider the African role in the slave trade in regard to who should shoulder the cost of reparations.[30]

Private institutions

Private institutions and corporations were also involved in slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported that Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign making a historic demand for restitution and apologies from modern companies that played a direct role in enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. was her first target because of their practice of writing life insurance policies on the lives of enslaved Africans with slave owners as the beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, and the "corporate restitution movement" was born.

By 2002, nine lawsuits were filed around the country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann and the Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. The litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from the banking, insurance, textile, railroad, and tobacco industries. The cases were consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407[31] to multidistrict litigation in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois. The district court dismissed the lawsuits with prejudice, and the claimants appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit.

On December 13, 2006, that court, in an opinion written by Judge Richard Posner, modified the district court's judgment to be a dismissal without prejudice, affirmed the majority of the district court's judgment, and reversed the portion of the district court's judgment dismissing the plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding the case for further proceedings consistent with its opinion.[32] Thus, the plaintiffs may bring the lawsuit again, but must clear considerable procedural and substantive hurdles first:

If one or more of the defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves in 1850, and the plaintiffs can establish standing to sue, prove the violation despite its antiquity, establish that the law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly or by providing the basis for a common law action for conspiracy, conversion, or restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons or their descendants, identify their ancestors, quantify damages incurred, and persuade the court to toll the statute of limitations, there would be no further obstacle to the grant of relief.[33]

In October 2000, California passed the Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business there to report on their role in slavery. The disclosure legislation, introduced by Senator Tom Hayden, is the prototype for similar laws passed in 12 states around the United States.

The NAACP has called for more of such legislation at local and corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of the NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies that have historical ties to slavery and engaging all parties to come to the table."[34] Brown University, whose namesake family was involved in the slave trade, has also established a committee to explore the issue of reparations. In February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses[35] to its Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice.[36] While in 1995 the Southern Baptist Convention apologized for the "sins" of racism, including slavery.[37]

In December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under the sponsorship of the Restitution Study Group. The boycott targets the student loan products of banks deemed complicit in slavery—particularly those identified in the Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of the boycott, students are asked to choose from other banks to finance their student loans.[38]

Pro-reparations groups such as The National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America advocate for compensation to be in the form of community rehabilitation and not payments to individual descendants.[25]

Arguments for reparations

Accumulated wealth

In 2008 the American Humanist Association published an article which argued that if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess and retain the profits of their labor, their descendants might now control a much larger share of American social and monetary wealth.[39] Not only did the freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but they were stripped of the small amounts of compensation paid to some of them during Reconstruction.[40]

The wealth of the United States was greatly enhanced by the exploitation of African American slave labor.[41] According to this view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances.

Health care

In 2019, VICE magazine published an article that argued racial health disparities, from slavery through Jim Crow until today, have cost Black Americans a significant amount of money in health care expenses and lost wages, and should be paid back.[42]

Precedents

Advocates have used other examples of reparations to argue that victims of institutional slavery should be similarly compensated.[43]

In several cases the federal government has formally apologized to or compensated minority groups for past actions:

  • Under the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, signed into law by President Ronald Reagan, the U.S. government apologized for Japanese American internment during World War II and provided reparations of $20,000 to each survivor, to compensate for loss of property and liberty during that period. No compensation was given to the descendants of affected individuals though.
  • The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act transferred land, federal money, and a portion of oil revenues to native Alaskans.
  • The Apology Resolution of 1993 apologized for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii, but gave no compensation.

U.S. state governments have made reparations in some specific circumstances:

  • Virginia established a compensation fund for victims of involuntary sterilization in 2015.[44]

Other countries have also opted to pay reparations for past grievances, such as:

  • Reparations for the Holocaust, including the Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany and various programs under the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany.

Arguments against reparations

The legal statute of limitations for filing lawsuits has long since passed, which prevents courts from granting relief via a lawsuit. This has been used effectively in several suits, including "In re African American Slave Descendants", which dismissed a high-profile suit against a number of businesses with ties to slavery.[45]

Additional arguments and opinions

Steven Greenhut, the western region director for the R Street Institute, has suggested that reparations would make racism worse.[46]

Republican Senator Mitch McConnell of Kentucky, while acknowledging that slavery was an "original sin" of the United States, opposes providing reparations because "none of us currently living are responsible."[47] Legal philosophers have forcefully argued that this fact is irrelevant.[48]

One publication against reparations is David Horowitz, Uncivil Wars: The Controversy Over Reparations for Slavery (2002). Other works that discuss problems with reparations include John Torpey's Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics (2006), Alfred Brophy's Reparations Pro and Con (2006), and Nahshon Perez's Freedom from Past Injustices (Edinburgh University Press, 2012).

Examples

Federal government

On July 30, 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws.[26]

States
  • California – Adopted legislation requiring insurance companies to determine whether they have records going back to when slavery existed in this country and, if so, to provide information on insurance policies held by slaveholders on slaves to the state's insurance department.[49]
  • Illinois – Adopted legislation requiring insurance companies to determine whether they have records going back to when slavery existed in this country and, if so, to provide information on insurance policies held by slaveholders on slaves to the state's insurance department.[49]
  • Maryland – Adopted legislation requiring insurance companies to determine whether they have records going back to when slavery existed in this country and, if so, to provide information on insurance policies held by slaveholders on slaves to the state's insurance department.[49]
  • Iowa: Adopted legislation asking the insurance commissioner to request if insurance companies they have records going back to when slavery existed in this country and, if so, to provide information on insurance policies held by slaveholders on slaves to the state's insurance department.[49]
  • Alabama – Apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans on April 25, 2007.[27]
  • Connecticut – In 2009 apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans.[50]
  • Delaware – Apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans on February 11, 2016.[28]
  • Florida – In 2008, apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans in America.[27]
  • Maryland – In 2007, apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans in America in 2007.[27]
  • New Jersey – In 2007, apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans in America in 2008.[27]
  • North Carolina – In 2007, apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans in America.[29]
  • Tennessee – In 2007, the Tennessee House of Representatives voted in unanimous support on a resolution stat that it "regrets" its involvement in the enslavement of Africans. The House had specifically removed any "apology" language from the resolution.[51][52]
  • Virginia – Apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans on February 26, 2007.[27]

Counties
  • Buncombe County, North Carolina: On June 16th, 2020 in a 4-3 vote, Buncombe County Commissioners decided to remove several Confederate monuments including the Vance Monument [53] which is named after North Carolina Governor Zeb Vance, a slave owner who used convict labor to build the railroad to Western North Carolina.[54] Significant community involvement led to the decision. Leading up to the vote, the board received 549 supporting messages and 19 opposing.[55]

Cities
  • Chicago, Illinois: "In 2015, Chicago enacted a reparations ordinance covering hundreds of African Americans tortured by police from the 1970s to the 1990s. The law calls for $5.5 million in financial compensation, as well as hundreds of thousands more for a public memorial, and a range of assistance related to health, education and emotional well-being."[56]
  • Evanston, Illinois: "The City Council of Evanston, Illinois, voted to allocate the first $10 million in tax revenue from the sale of recreational marijuana (which became legal in the state on January 1, 2020) to fund reparations initiatives that address the gaps in wealth and opportunity of black residents."[2]
  • Asheville, North Carolina: The city council approved reparations on a 7-0 vote on July 14, 2020. "[B]udgetary and programmatic priorities may include but not be limited to increasing minority home ownership and access to other affordable housing, increasing minority business ownership and career opportunities, strategies to grow equity and generational wealth, closing the gaps in health care, education, employment and pay, neighborhood safety and fairness within criminal justice," the resolution reads. The resolution establishes the Community Reparations Commission which will make make concrete recommendations for programs and resources allocations to ultimately carry out the reparations.[57] The Asheville City Council also voted unanimously on June 9th, 2020 to remove two confederate monuments as a result of demands made by a group called "Black Asheville Demands" [58] and the work of the Racial Justice Coalition with led the push for the effort.[59] The City Council meeting had so much community engagement public comment was extended for an extra hour beyond the normal meeting time.[57]

Organizations and institutions
  • Georgetown University: "In 2016 [the university agreed] to give admissions preference to descendants of the 272 slaves[,] formally apologized for its role in slavery [and] [renamed] two buildings on its campus to acknowledge the lives of enslaved people". In April, 2019 students at Georgetown University voted to increase their tuition by $27.20 to benefit the descendants of the 272 slaves sold by the Jesuits who ran the school in 1838. The student led referendum was non-binding.[60] Later that year, after further pressure and follow up from the Georgetown University Student Association [61] the university eventually moved forward with a similar proposal without the student's covering the cost with a tuition increase.[62]
  • Princeton Theological Seminary: In 2019 the Seminary announced a $27 million commitment for various initiatives to recognize how it benefited from black slavery. This is the largest monetary commitment by an educational institution.[2]
  • Virginia Theological Seminary: Set aside $1.7 million to pay reparations to descendants of African Americans who were enslaved to work on their campus.[2]
  • Wachovia: Apologized for its connection to slavery in 2005.[63]
  • JP Morgan Chase: Apologized for its connection to slavery in 2005.[64]

See also

References
  1. Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations". Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  2. Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations". University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  3. Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained". Vox.
  4. Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181-1213, 1182-1184 (Spring 2004)
  5. Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening". Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  6. "Black Asheville Demands - Reparations Section". June 26, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  7. Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered". Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  8. "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism". June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  9. Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today". Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  10. Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality". Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  11. Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). "The school to prison pipeline, explained". Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  12. "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System". April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  13. Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). "Slavery in the US prison system". Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  14. "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?". June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.
  15. Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer".
  16. "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander
  17. McDaniel, W. Caleb. "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won". Smithsonian. Retrieved October 6, 2019.
  18. Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details". US News.
  19. Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice".
  20. Berkowitz, Bonnie; Blanco, Adrian (July 2, 2020). "Confederate monuments are falling, but hundreds still stand. Here's where".
  21. Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). "The Case Against Slave Reparations" (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.
  22. "Peace Stamps". peacemission.info. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  23. Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum". Seattle Times. Retrieved November 10, 2008.
  24. Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations". worldpress.org. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  25. Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance". The NewStandard. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  26. "Congress Apologizes for Slavery, Jim Crow". NPR. July 30, 2008. but made no mention of reparations.
  27. "What States Have Apologized for Slavery". Blerd Planet. June 12, 2019. Retrieved June 13, 2019.
  28. Moyer, Justin (February 11, 2016). "Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
  29. "North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery". NSNBC. April 5, 2007. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
  30. Henry Louis Gates Jr (April 22, 2010). "Opinion – How to End the Slavery Blame-Game". The New York Times. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  31. 28 U.S.C. § 1407
  32. http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf%5B%5D
  33. In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig., 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).
  34. "NAACP to target private business". The Washington Times. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  35. "Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007" (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  36. Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice.
  37. "Southern Baptist Convention > Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention". Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  38. Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", The NewStandard, December 6, 2005.
  39. Ananda S. Osel, U.S. Apology for Slavery – Apparently Not Front Page News The Humanist, Nov/Dec 2008 (American Humanist Association) ISN:7336164802
  40. The Bracken Rangers: Company K, 28th Regiment, 1st Indiana Cavalry, and ... - Robert Stevens - Google Books
  41. James Oliver Horton; Lois E. Horton (2005). Slavery and the Making of America. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-19-517903-3. The slave trade and the products created by slaves' labor, particularly cotton, provided the basis for America's wealth as a nation, underwriting the country's industrial revolution and enabling it to project its power into the rest of the world.
  42. Jason Silverstein (June 19, 2019). "Being Black in America Is a Health Risk. It's Time for Reparations". Vice.
  43. "The Legal Basis of the Claim for Slavery Reparations". American Bar Association. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  44. Victims of Eugenics Sterilization Compensation Program
  45. "In re: African-American Slave Descents Ligation". Case Law. Retrieved July 9, 2019.
  46. Greenhut, Steven (April 5, 2019). "Reparations Are More Likely to Divide the Nation Than Heal It". Reason.
  47. Ted Barrett, Ted (June 19, 2019). "McConnell opposes paying reparations: 'None of us currently living are responsible' for slavery". Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  48. Donelson, Raff (July 1, 2020). "Reparations, Responsibility, and Formalism : A Reply to Carnes". Philosophia. doi:10.1007/s11406-020-00237-y. ISSN 0048-3893.
  49. McCarthy, Kevin (February 1, 2012). "SLAVERY ERA INSURANCE REGISTRY LAWS". Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  50. "HOUSE PASSES RESOLUTION TO APOLOGIZE FOR SLAVERY". Hartford Courant. May 22, 2009.
  51. "Tennessee weighs an apology for slavery". April 16, 2014. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  52. "TN votes to express regret for slavery, but not apologize". Chattanooga Times Free Press. Associated Press. April 16, 2020.
  53. Penter, Caitlyn (June 16, 2020). "Confederate monuments to be moved from downtown Asheville". Retrieved July 15, 2020.
  54. Ready, Milton (June 25, 2015). "When past is present: Zeb Vance and his monument". Retrieved July 15, 2020.
  55. Walter, Rebecca (June 17, 2020). "Monumental decision: Buncombe County approves removal of Confederate statues".
  56. Hassan, Adeel; Healy, Jack (June 19, 2019). "America Has Tried Reparations Before. Here Is How It Went". The New York Times. The New York Times. Retrieved July 12, 2020. In 2015, Chicago enacted a reparations ordinance covering hundreds of African Americans tortured by police from the 1970s to the 1990s. The law calls for $5.5 million in financial compensation, as well as hundreds of thousands more for a public memorial, and a range of assistance related to health, education and emotional well-being.
  57. Burgess, Joel. "In historic move, Asheville approves reparations for Black residents". Citizen Times. Retrieved July 15, 2020.
  58. "City OKs monuments' removal, pending county approval". June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 15, 2020.
  59. "In historic move, North Carolina city approves reparations for Black residents". June. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  60. "America Has Tried Reparations Before. Here Is How It Went". The New York Times. The New York Times. June 19, 2019. Retrieved July 12, 2020. In 2015, Chicago enacted a reparations ordinance covering hundreds of African Americans tortured by police from the 1970s to the 1990s. The law calls for $5.5 million in financial compensation, as well as hundreds of thousands more for a public memorial, and a range of assistance related to health, education and emotional well-being.
  61. Li, Amy (June 25, 2019). "Board of Directors Meets, Does Not Vote on GU272 Referendum". The Hoya. Georgetown University. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  62. Ebbs, Stephanie (October 30, 2019). "Georgetown University announces reparations fund to benefit descendants of slaves once sold by the school". ABC News. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  63. Katie Benner (June 2, 2005). "Wachovia apologizes for ties to slavery". CNN/Money. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  64. "JP Morgan admits US slavery links". BBC News. November 15, 2017. Retrieved November 15, 2017.

Further reading
  • Araujo, Ana Lucia (2017). Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1350010604.
  • Bittker, Boris I. The Case for Black Reparations. New York: Random House, 1973.
  • Brophy, Alfred L. Reparations: Pro & Con. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  • Brooks, Roy L. Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.
  • Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 2014). "The Case for Reparations". The Atlantic.
  • Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002.
  • Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. The Case against Slave Reparations. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004.
  • Hakim, Ida. The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations. Red Oak, GA: CURE, 2005.
  • Henry, Charles P. Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations. New York: New York University Press, 2007.
  • Kauffman, Matthew (September 29, 2002). "The Debt". Hartford Courant. pp. 192–197 – via newspapers.com.
  • Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007.
  • Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P
  • Millman, Noah (May 29, 2014). "Taking Reparations Seriously". American Conservative.
  • Torpey, John. Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006.
  • University of Kansas. Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009.
  • Walters, Ronald W. African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012.
  • Winbush, Raymond A. Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003.

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