List of lynching victims in the United States

This is a List of lynching victims in the United States. Lynching is the summary execution of an offender, or supposed offender, without due process of law, by a self-constituted and irresponsible body of men. Lynchings in the United States rose in number after the American Civil War in the late 19th century, following the emancipation of slaves; they declined in the 1920s. Nearly 3,500 African Americans and 1,300 whites were lynched in the United States between 1882 and 1968.[1] Most lynchings were of African-American men in the Southern United States, but women were also lynched. More than 73 percent of lynchings in the post–Civil War period occurred in the Southern states.[2] White lynchings of black people also occurred in the Midwestern United States and the Border States, especially during the 20th-century Great Migration of black people out of the Southern United States. The purpose was to enforce white supremacy and intimidate black people through racial terrorism.

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

The body of John Heath, lynched in Tombstone, Arizona, on February 22, 1884, following the Bisbee massacre

According to Ida B. Wells and the Tuskegee University, most lynching victims were accused of murder or attempted murder. Rape or attempted rape was the second most common accusation; such accusations were often pretexts for lynching black people who violated Jim Crow etiquette or engaged in economic competition with white people. Sociologist Arthur F. Raper investigated one hundred lynchings during the 1930s and estimated that approximately one-third of the victims were falsely accused.[3][4]

On a per capita basis, lynchings were also common in California and the Old West, especially of Latinos, although they represented less than 10% of the national total. Native Americans and Asian Americans were also lynched.[5] Other ethnicities, including Finnish-Americans,[6] German-Americans[7] and Italian-Americans[8][9] were also lynched occasionally.

19th century

Name	Age	Ethnicity	City	County or Parish	State	Year	Accusation	Comment
Ah Wing and at least 15 others		Chinese	Los Angeles	Los Angeles	California	1871	None	Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher. See: Chinese massacre of 1871
Saladino, Lorenzo; Arena, Salvatore; Giuseppe Venturella	33–36, 27, 48	Italian	Hahnville	St. Charles Parish	Louisiana	1896	Murder	Saladino was accused of murdering a wealthy merchant. Arena and Venturella happened to have been in the same prison, accused of a different murder. All rounded up together and lynched to "teach the lawless Italians a salutary lesson." After the lynching, another person confessed to the murder for which Arena and Venturella had been lynched.[10]
DiFatta brothers (Francesco, Carlo, and Giuseppe); Cerami, Giovanni; Rosario Fiducia		Italian	Tallulah	Madison Parish	Louisiana	1899	Shooting a doctor	Sicilian immigrant grocery store owners, the DiFatta brothers, quarreled with a local doctor. The doctor fired his pistol at Carlo and was immediately shot and injured by Giuseppe. Sicilian immigrants Cerami and Fiducia were not involved in the dispute and had simply been nearby when the lynching occurred; they were rounded up and lynched alongside the DiFatta brothers because they were Italian.[11]
Heath, John	28	White	Bisbee	Cochise	Arizona Territory	1884	Accessory to robbery	Mob unsatisfied with lenient sentence
Hose, Sam	about 24	African-American	Noonan	Coweta	Georgia	1899	Killed his white employer in self-defense. Accusations of rape added to incite lynching.	Body parts for sale in a store. Widely publicized and privately investigated.
Joe Coe ("A married man with two children")		African-American	Omaha	Douglas	Nebraska	1891	Assault on a white girl of 5	The Governor and the Sheriff tried unsuccessfully to quiet the crowd in front of the Courthouse. Pieces of the lynching rope were sold as souvenirs. Despite 16 wounds to his body and three broken vertebrae, Coroner said he died of "fright". Grand jury declined to indict.
Henry Smith	17	African-American	Paris	Lamar	Texas	1893	Kidnapping and murder of white girl; Smith confessed under duress.	Tortured, burned with hot irons, doused in oil and set on fire; his remains were sold as souvenirs.
Lovejoy, Elijah	35	White	Alton	Madison	Illinois	1837	Abolitionist newspaper editor and publisher	Had moved to Alton to escape violence in St. Louis. Four successive printing presses destroyed. "Not guilty" verdict; jury foreman member of mob.[12]
Miller, Amos	23	African-American	Franklin	Williamson	Tennessee	1888	Assaulting a white woman	Taken from the courthouse during his trial and lynched on the balcony railings.[13]
Taylor, Jim		African-American	Franklin	Williamson	Tennessee	1891	Shooting a policeman	Taken from his jail cell by a mob and lynched on Murfreesboro Road.[14]
Jones, David		African-American	Nashville	Davidson	Tennessee	1872	Murdering Henry Murray.	Taken out of his prison cell and lynched by a mob on the public square.[15][16]
Grizzard, Ephraim		African-American	Nashville	Davidson	Tennessee	1892	Assaulting two white girls in Goodlettsville.	Taken out of his prison cell and lynched on a bridge in Downtown Nashville in front of 10,000 onlookers. Later taken back to Goodlettsville.[17]
11 Italian Americans		Italian-American	New Orleans	Orleans	Louisiana	1891	Killing of police chief	3 had been acquitted; 3 had a mistrial; 5 never tried. Lynching organized by local leaders, including future mayor Walter C. Flower and future governor John M. Parker. Grand jury brought no charges.
Villarosa, Federico (Francesco Valoto)		Italian	Vicksburg	Warren County	Mississippi	1886	Attempted rape of a 10-year-old white girl	Hanged from a tree by a mob despite the efforts of the sheriff and state militia.[18]
Heflin, Lee		White		Fauquier	Virginia	1892	Convicted murderer	Seized from police when they were trying to move him to a safer location.[19]
Shorter, William	17	African-American	Winchester	N/A (independent city)	Virginia	1893	Assault on a white woman	[19]
Dye, Joseph		White		Fauquier	Virginia	1892	Convicted murderer	Seized from police when they were trying to move him to a safer location.[19]
Anderson, Orion	14	African-American	Leesburg	Loudoun	Virginia	1889	"Scaring a teenaged white girl"[20]	Hung from a derrick[19]
Thompson, Benjamin	20	African-American	Alexandria	N/A (independent city)	Virginia	1899	Attempting to criminally assault an eight year-old white girl[20]	Hung from a lamppost at Cameron and Lee Sts., site of several lynchings.[19]
McCoy, Joseph	20	African-American	Alexandria	N/A (independent city)	Virginia	1897	Assault on a young girl	[19]
Fletcher, Magruder	about 35	African-American	Tasley	Accomack	Virginia	1889	Raping a white woman in her home[21]	[19]
Adam		African-American	Tampa	Hillsborough	Florida	1859	A white man was murdered; "in keeping with local custom, a slave man was selected to be killed in retribution". State Supreme Court overturned conviction.	Mob broke into jail where he was awaiting a new trial and hung him. Defended by Ossian Hart.[22]^:269
Reed, Joseph		African-American	Nashville	Davidson	Tennessee	1875	Killing a police officer	Taken out of his jail cell by an unmasked mob and hanged on a suspension bridge.[23]
Baker, Frazier B.	41	African-American	Lake City	Florence	South Carollna	1898	Appointed Postmaster	Grand jury did not indict. Since it was a Federal crime (attack on a postmaster) there were 13 Federal indictments; no one convicted
Moss, Tom	Adult	African-American	Memphis	Shelby	Tennessee	1892	Complaint from competing white grocery store owner.	So-called Curve Riot (not a riot). Reported on by Ida B. Wells, whose newspaper was destroyed and had to leave the state.[24]
McDowell, Calvin	Adult	African-American	Memphis	Shelby	Tennessee	1892	Complaint from competing white grocery store owner.	So-called Curve Riot (not a riot). Reported on by Ida B. Wells, whose newspaper was destroyed and had to leave the state.[24]
Stewart, Will	Adult	African-American	Memphis	Shelby	Tennessee	1892	Complaint from competing white grocery store owner.	So-called Curve Riot (not a riot). Reported on by Ida B. Wells, whose newspaper was destroyed and had to leave the state.[24]
Lundy, Dick	Adult	African-American	Edgefield	Edgefield	South Carolina	1891	Murder of son of sheriff	Coroner's jury: "by persons unknown"
Divers, Emmett	Adult	African-American	Fulton	Callaway	Missouri	1895	Murder of a white woman; Jennie E. Cain	"Horrible fury of the mob...500 horsemen." Hung from bridge until dead, taken down and hung a second time from a telegraph pole at the fairground, "at the request of the murdered woman's husband, John William Cain". Body and cabin burned.[25]
Great Hanging at Gainesville (number > 16)	Adult men	White	Gainesville	Cooke	Texas	1862	Lynching, plus "legal" executions, of Union supporters by Confederate supporters	Many lynched before trial was concluded. Prosecution of perpetrators "half-hearted"; only one convicted.[26][27]
Peterson, John	Adult	African-American	Denmark	Bamberg (at the time, Barnwell County)	South Carolina	1893	Attack on a white girl
Woods, Eliza		"Colored"	Jackson	Madison	Tennessee	1886	Supposedly poisoning her employer.	Taken from the county jail, stripped naked, hung up in the courthouse yard and her body riddled with bullets and left exposed to view.[28]
Harrington, Levi		African-American	Kansas City	Jackson	Missouri	1882	Killing a police officer	Newspapers reported he was innocent, but no one was held accountable for the lynching.[29][30][31][32]
Mingo Jack	66	African-American	Eatontown	Monmouth	New Jersey	1886	Rape of a white woman	All suspects acquitted.[33][34]
Smith, Joseph (founder of Mormonism) and brother Hyrum Smith	38, 44	White	Carthage	Hancock	Illinois	1844	Technically, treason against state of Illinois, but lynching was for religious views, especially plural marriage/polygamy.	In jail awaiting trial. Five men were tried and acquitted.
McIntosh, Francis	26	African-American	St. Louis	N/A (independent city)	Missouri	1836	Complicated, but culminating in death of one constable/deputy sheriff and wounding another	Burned alive. Lynching had broad local support. Reported on by abolitionist editor Elijah Lovejoy, who was soon lynched himself.
Campbell, John (Jack)		Mixed race (White/Dakota)[35]	Mankato	Blue Earth, Nicollet, and Le Sueur	Minnesota	1865	Double murder	Lynched by a mob after an extrajudicial "trial".[36][37]
Taylor, John	17	African-American	Mason	Ingham	Michigan	1866	attempted murder of his employer's wife following a wage dispute	John was a former slave, and had been a teenage soldier for the Union. A mob dragged him from a jail, tortured him and hanged him from a tree, and mutilated and decapitated his body; no one was prosecuted. In 2018 a local park was named the "John Taylor Memorial Park" after him.[36][38]
Gilmer, Bill		African-American	Memphis	Shelby	Tennessee	1879	Shot attorney Thomas J. Wood	Shot. Gilmer was accused of shooting Wood who had whipped Gilmer for using offensive language near his wife.[39][40]
Conorly, Huie	16	African-American	Bogalusa	Washington	Louisiana	1884	Attempted rape	[41]
Champion, Tony Kelly, Michael		African-American, White (Irish)	Gainesville	Alachua	Florida	1891	Murder	Taken together from jail by mob and hanged.[42]
Ford, Andrew		African-American	Gainesville	Alachua	Florida	1891	Beating a man, aiding Harmon Murray	Taken from jail by mob and hanged.[42]
Hinson, Henry		African-American	Micanopy	Alachua	Florida	1892	Murder	Hanged.[42]
Unknown	boy	African-American	Waldo	Alachua	Florida	1892	Suspicion of burglary and incendiarism	Hanged.[42]
Willis, Charles		African-American	Rochelle	Alachua	Florida	1894	Being a "desperado"[43]	Shot and burned in bed.[42]
Rawls, William		African-American	Newnansville	Alachua	Florida	1895	Murder	Hanged and shot.[42]
Daniels, Alfred		African-American	Gainesville	Alachua	Florida	1896	Suspicion of arson (barn burning) (no evidence)	Taken by mob on way to jail, hanged and shot.[42]
Randolph, Sydney	Adult	African-American	Gaithersburg	Montgomery	Maryland	1896	Killing a white girl	Taken from the jail by a mob.[44]
James, John Henry	Adult	African-American	Charlottesville (near)	Albemarle	Virginia	1898	Rape	Hanged and shot by a mob.
Martin, Albert	23	African-American	Port Huron	St. Clair	Michigan	1889	Assault and rape	A mob broke into his jail cell with sledge hammers, dragged him from the jail with a noose around his neck, beat and shot him to death, then hanged his corpse from a bridge.[36][45]
Puryear, Richard		African-American	Stroudsburg	Monroe	Pennsylvania	1894	Murder	Lynched by a mob after escaping from jail.[36][46]
Porter, Nevlin		African-American	Starkville	Oktibbeha	Mississippi	1879	Arson	[47]
Spencer, Johnson		African-American	Starkville	Oktibbeha	Mississippi	1879	Arson	[48]
Outlaw, Wyatt	49-50	African-American	Graham	Alamance	North Carolina	1870	Prominent local figure (no crime alleged)	63 indictments, but the North Carolina Legislature, to end their cases, repealed the law they were charged with violating.[49]
Stephens, John W.	35	White	Yancyville	Caswell	North Carolina	1870	State senator who worked to help freedmen	Ku Klux Klan; no one charged.
McChristian, Perry		White	Grenada	Grenada	Mississippi	1885	Murder of white peddler	[50]
Williams, Felix		White	Grenada	Grenada	Mississippi	1885	Murder of white peddler	[50]
James, Bartley		African-American	Grenada	Grenada	Mississippi	1885	Suspicion of murder of white peddler	[50]
Campbell, John		African-American	Grenada	Grenada	Mississippi	1885	Suspicion of murder of white peddler	[50]
Five un-named men		African-American	Mount Vernon	Posey	Indiana	1878	Accused of rape	Largest recorded lynching in Indiana. No-one was ever indicted.

20th century

Name	Age	Ethnicity	City	County or Parish	State	Year	Accusation	Comment
Everest, Wesley	28	White	Centralia	Lewis	Washington	1919	Homicide	Hanged from a bridge during the Centralia Massacre labor conflict
Little, Wilbur		African-American	Blakely	Early	Georgia	1919	Wearing uniform of his WWI military service to the United States
Cato, Will Reed, Paul		African-American	Statesboro	Bulloch	Georgia	1904	Murder of five members of a family	Seized by mob from courthouse after conviction for murder, chained to stump and burned
Wades, Jake		African-American	Lakeland	Polk	Florida	1909	Accused of rape	Transported from Gainesville to Lakeland to be identified and lynched[51]
Stevenson, Cordella		African-American	Columbus	Lowndes	Mississippi	1915	Her son was accused of burning a white man's barn, he was unavailable, so they raped and murdered her	Her husband Arch was never seen alive after December 15[52]
Gathers, Phillip		African-American		Effingham	Georgia	1920	Murder
William Bradford		African-American	Chunky	Newton	Mississippi	1911	Accused of attempted murder of two white farmers	[53]
Council, Lynn	about 19	African-American	near Raleigh	Wake	North Carolina	1952	Robbery	He survived. Newspapers treat it as a lynching. Council has received apologies from the law enforcement agencies involved.
Harrison, Cellos	31	African-American	Marianna	Jackson	Florida	1943	Murder of a white man.	Awaiting new trial after conviction overturned on appeal.
Thompson, Shedrick (also spelled "Shamrock")	39	African-American	rural	Fauquier	Virginia	1932	Assault and rape.
Turner, Allen	47	African-American	Western area of Parish (county)	Union	Louisiana	1914	Accused of Assaulting a white man (J.P. McDougall)[54]	J.P. McDougall was whipping Allen Turner's son. Allen was defending his son. Taken from deputy sheriff and shot to death. It is said that Allen's body was then dragged through the roads of Spearsville.
Lang, Ed		African-American	Rice	Navarro	Texas	1916	"Attacking a young woman."	Taken from a sheriff's posse and hanged.[55]
Wright, Charles Young, Arthur[56] one other		African-American	Perry	Taylor	Florida	1922	Murder of white teacher	Wright was taken from sheriff by a large mob, tortured into confession, and burned at the stake. Arthur Young was later taken from the jail and he and another man were shot and hanged. Several African American community buildings and homes were burned in the Perry race riot.
Scott, Henry		African American	Bartow	Polk	Florida	1920	He asked a white woman to wait until he had prepared another woman's train berth	Shot[57]
Moore's Ford lynchings (George W. and Mae Murray Dorsey; Roger and Dorothy Malcom)	Adults	African-American		Walton	Georgia	1946	Stabbing of a white man (Roger Malcom)	Huge investigation. 2003 and 2016 books on this investigation. No one charged.
Hamilton, Eugene		African-American		Jasper	Georgia	1919	Convicted by all-white jury of attempting to shoot a white farmer; case before Georgia Court of Appeals.	Mob of 60 stopped car of sheriff who was driving him for protection to nearest large city, Macon. Driven to a bridge in Jasper County and shot to death. Governor was "livid".[58]^:233–234
Cox, Obe		African-American		Oglethorpe County	Georgia	1919	Accused of murdering a white farmer's wife	Taken to the scene of the crime, his body riddled with bullets and burned at the stake. Several thousand persons witnessed the scene. Controversial as the local Black communisty "thanked" the mob for just killing Cox and not attacking their community.[59]
Jones, Paul		African-American	Macon (near)	Bibb	Georgia	1919	Attacking a white woman.	Mob of 400 found him, refused to turn him over to sheriff's deputies. Soaked in gasoline, set on fire; shot while he burned.[58]^:241
Jameson, Jordan		African-American	Magnolia	Columbia	Arkansas	1919	Killing a sheriff.	Burned to death in the public square.[58]^:241
Watt, W.W.		White	Newport News	N/A	Virginia	1900	Assault	Shot[60]
Walters, Lemuel		African-American	Longview	Gregg	Texas	1919	Making "indecent advances" to a white woman.
Holden, George		African-American	Monroe (near)	Ouachita	Louisiana	1919	Writing a suggestive note to a white woman[61]	Mob stopped a train, dragged him off, and shot him.[58]^:18
Wilkins, Willie		African-American		Jenkins	Georgia	1919	Friend of man believed to have killed lawman.	[58]^:8
Ruffin, John		African-American		Jenkins	Georgia	1919	Son of man believed to have killed lawman.	[58]^:7–8
Ruffin, Henry		African-American		Jenkins	Georgia	1919	Son of man believed to have killed lawman.	[58]^:7–8
Gause, Anderson		African-American	Henning	Lauderdale	Tennessee	1900	Aided escapees	[60]
Pete, Dago		African-American	Tutwiler	Tallahatchie	Mississippi	1900	Assaulted colored woman	Killed by African American mob[60]
Nelson, Laura		African-American	Okemah	Okfuskee	Oklahoma	1911	Shooting a sheriff.	Gang-raped and lynched together with her son, 14, after trying to protect him during a meat-pilfering investigation.[62]
Fambro, William		African-American	Griffin	Spalding	Georgia	1903	Insulted white home	[63]
Banks, Isadore	59	African-American	Marion	Crittenden	Arkansas	1954	Being prosperous	[64]
Unknown male		African-American	Marion	Crittenden	Arkansas	1930s	Teaching the black children of Marked Tree, Arkansas to read	Burned, sign posted "run niggers run!".[65]
Price, Manny, Scruggs, Robert		African-American	Newberry	Alachua	Florida	1902	Murder, suspected accomplice	Taken by mob on way to jail, hanged and shot.[42]
Clark, Jumbo		African-American	High Springs	Alachua	Florida	1904	Assault of 14 year old white girl	Taken by mob on way to jail, hanged and shot.[42]
Long, Jack		White	Newberry	Alachua	Florida	1908	Murder	Hanged.[42]
Jay Lynch	28	White	Missouri	Barton	Missouri	1919	Murder	Hanged.
White, Henry		African-American	Campville	Alachua	Florida	1913	Found under white woman's bed	Hanged, noose broke, shot.[42]
Newberry Six lynchings (Baskins, Rev. Josh J., Dennis, Bert, Dennis, James, Dennis, Mary, McHenry, Andrew, and Young, Stella)	Adults	African-American	Newberry	Alachua	Florida	1916	Helping a man who had shot and killed a constable	James Dennis was shot. The others were hanged. Mary Dennis had two children and was pregnant. Stella Young had four children.[42][66]
Wilson, Abraham		African-American	Newberry	Alachua	Florida	1923	Cattle stealing	Serving 6-month sentence when taken from jail and hanged.[42][67]
Buddington, George	55	African-American	Waldo	Alachua	Florida	1926	Attempted to collect debt from a white woman at gunpoint	Mob broke lock on jail, took Buddington out of town and shot him to death.[42][68]
Pyszko, Marian	54	Polish Jew	Detroit	Wayne	Michigan	1975	None.	Killed by African American youths during riot.
Green, Ernest, and Charlie Lang	14, 15	African-American	Shubuta ("hanging bridge")	Clarke	Mississippi	1942	Attempted rape.	[69]^:101
Johnson, Ed	23-24	African-American	Chattanooga	Hamilton	Tennessee	1906	Rape of white woman	Sheriff and two others sentenced to 6 months in jail, three others with 3 months, for abetting the lynching. Only criminal case ever with direct involvement of the U.S. Supreme Court; see United States v. Shipp
Clark, Andrew and Major; Alma and Maggie House	16, 20, 16, 20	African-American	Shubuta ("hanging bridge")	Clarke	Mississippi	1918	Alleged murder of dentist	Dentist had affairs with both sisters, who were pregnant, likely with his child; the brothers had romantic interest in the girls. After the lynching the babies were seen squirming in their mothers bellies.[70]
Clark, James		African-American	Eau Gallie	Brevard	Florida	1926	Rape of a white girl	No attempt to verify crime nor identify murderers: last known lynching in Brevard County[71][72]
Williams, Elbert		African-American	Brownsville	Haywood	Tennessee	1940	Registering to vote and starting an NAACP chapter.	Last reported lynching in Tennessee.[73]
Brown, Will	41	African-American	Omaha	Douglas	Nebraska	1919	Rape	Part of the Omaha race riot of 1919
Williams, Eugene		African-American	Chicago	Cook	Illinois	1919	Racial unrest	A white officer refused to arrest the murderer, and instead arrested a black man who complained about it.[74]
Robinson, Robert		African-American	Chicago	Cook	Illinois	1919	He was black, and they wanted to kill a black	Robinson was an Army Reserve veteran.[75]
Ashley, Bob		African-American	Dublin	Laurens	Georgia	1919	Hoped to shoot someone else	A group of men thought another man might be inside Ashley's house, so they shot into the house, mortally wounding Ashley.[76]
Wright, Cleo	26	African-American	Sikeston	Scott	Missouri	1942	Home invasion, attempted murder, attempted rape, resisting arrest	Around 100 black people left Sikeston and never returned.[77]
Walters, Lemuel		African-American	Longview	Gregg	Texas	1919	Consensual sex with white woman	The report of the affair and the subsequent coverup led to the Longview riots.[78]
Richards, Benny		African-American	Warrenton	Warren	Georgia	1919	Accused of murdering his ex-wife and shooting 5 others	300 men lynched Richards, a farmer.[79][80]
Clay, Lloyd		African-American	Vicksburg	Warren	Mississippi	1919	False rape accusation	1000 men broke through three steel doors to abduct Clay from jail before hanging, shooting, and burning him.[81]
Prince, Henry		African-American	Hawkinsville	Pulaski	Georgia	1919	Unknown	[82]
Waters, Jim		African-American		Johnson	Georgia	1919	Rape accusation	Investigation closed in one hour with no witnesses interviewed.[82]
Livingston, Frank	25	African-American	El Dorado	Union	Arkansas	1919	False murder accusation	One of many returning WWI veterans lynched in 1919.[83]
Miller, William		African-American	Brighton	Jefferson	Alabama	1908	Labor activist	Jefferson County had the highest number of lynchings in Alabama (29).[84]
Washington, Berry	72	African-American	Milan	Dodge and Telfair	Georgia	1919	Defended black girls from white home invaders.	Many black homes burned to discourage citizens from coming forward[85]
Chaney, James	21	African-American	Philadelphia	Neshoba	Mississippi	1964	Civil rights worker	A federal jury in 1967 convicted the sheriff and six others of conspiracy to violate civil rights; they received minor punishment. A state jury in 2005 found the Ku Klux Klan organizer, Edgar Ray Killen, guilty of three counts of manslaughter; he died in prison. National outrage contributed to passage of Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Jordan, James	Adult	African-American	Waverly	Sussex	Virginia	1925	Married woman "attacked" in her home.	The case and two others helped lead to the Virginia Anti-Lynching Law of 1928, the first state law against lynching.[86][87]
Armwood, George	23	African-American	Princess Anne	Somerset	Maryland	1933	Attempted assault and rape	Grand jury declined to indict any of the lynchers identified by State Police. Last lynching in Maryland.
Taylor, George		African-American	Rolesville	Wake	North Carolina	1918	Rape of a white woman	No charges were filed.[88] There is a Web site on this lynching.[89]
Carter, James		African-American	Amherst	Amherst	Virginia	1902	Unknown	[90]
Estes, Siles		African-American	Hodgenville	LaRue	Kentucky	1901	"Forcing...a 15 year old boy...to commit a crime."	[91]
Carter, George		African-American	Paris	Bourbon	Kentucky	1901	"Assaulting a white woman."	[92]
Steers, Jennie	Adult	African-American	rural area near Shreveport	Caddo	Louisiana	1903	Poisoning daughter of a planter	[93]^:70
Morris, Frank	49-50	African-American	Ferriday	Concordia	Louisiana	1964	"Flirting" with white females	[94]^:152
Byrd Jr., James	49	African-American	Jasper	Jasper	Texas	1998	None (white supremacists)	Dragged to death behind a car, until his head hit a culvert. Perpetrators convicted; two executed, one to life imprisonment.
Young, Albert (or Arthur)	21	African-American	Perry	Taylor	Florida	1922	Murder of a white schoolteacher	Tortured, then burned alive
Scott, James T. (Janitor at University of Missouri)	35-56	African-American	Columbia	Boone	Missouri	1923	Raping the white daughter of a professor.	Before he could stand trial, a mob broke him out of jail and hanged him. The daughter would later identify a different man as her rapist. Jury found perpetrator innocent in 11 minutes. Memorial plaque erected 2016.[95][96]
White, George	Adult	African-American	Wilmington	New Castle	Delaware	1903	Assaulting teenage girl and leaving her to die	Taken from county workhouse and burned alive. No one was prosecuted.
Walker, Zachariah	20-24	African-American	Coatesville	Chester	Pennsylvania	1911	Killing of a police officer, possibly in self-defense	Taken from hospital room and burned alive. Fifteen men and teenage boys were indicted, but all were acquitted at trials.[97]
Clayton, Elias, Elmer Jackson, and Isaac McGhie	20-23	African-American	Duluth	St. Louis	Minnesota	1920	Rape of a teenage girl	Taken from jail by mob, given mock trials, beaten and hanged from light-post. No one was prosecuted.
Holmes, John, and Thomas Thurmond	29 27	White	San Jose	Santa Clara	California	1933	Kidnapping and murder of department store heir Brooke Hart	An estimated 10,000 people witnessed the lynching. California Governor James Rolph called the act "a fine lesson for the whole nation."[98]
Higginbotham, Elwood	28	African-American	Oxford	Lafayette	Mississippi	1935	Killed in self-defense a white man that attacked him after he complained about the white man's cattle running over his field.	Killed when jury did not bring back guilty verdict promptly. Widow and extended family immediately left Mississippi.[99]
Chilton Jennings	28	African-American	Gilmer	Upshur County	Texas	1919	Assaulted a white women, Mrs. Virgie Haggard	He was arrested and a mob of about 1,000 white people stormed the jail and broke down the door with sledgehammers. A noose was placed around his neck and he was dragged by horse to the town square where he was hanged.[100] Four people were later arrested for the lynching, murder indictments were served for Willie Howell, Charlie Lansdale, Fritz Boyd, and Francis Flanagan.[101]
Thomas, Wade		African-American	Jonesboro	Craighead	Arkansas	1920	Killing a policeman	Taken from jail by a mob, hung, then riddled with bullets.[102]
Patton, Nelse		African-American	Oxford	Lafayette	Mississippi	1908	Killing a white woman	Prominent attorney and former U.S. Senator William V. Sullivan, in his own words, "led the mob...and I'm proud of it".[103][104][105]
Smith, Samuel	15	African-American	Nolensville	Williamson	Tennessee	1924	Stealing spark plugs in a garage.	Taken out of his hospital room in Nashville and lynched by a mob of masked men where he was first caught.[106]
Albano, Angelo and Castenge Ficarotta		Italian	Tampa	Hillsborough County	Florida	1910	Complicity in a shooting	[107]
Lewis, Sanford		African-American	Fort Smith	Sebastian	Arkansas	1912	Shooting a constable	Five policemen fined $100 each for "nonfeasance of office". Entire police force fired. Mayor voted out. Man charged with lynching acquitted.[108]
Phifer, Miles (or Relius)		African-American	Montgomery	Montgomery	Alabama	1919	Assault of a white woman	Was wearing military uniform[109]
Temple, Will		African-American	Montgomery	Montgomery	Alabama	1919	Killing a police officer	[109]
Miles Phifer, Robert Crosky and John Temple		African-American	Montgomery	Montgomery	Alabama	1919	Assault of a white woman	[109]
Williams, Matthew	23	African-American	Salisbury	Wicomico	Maryland	1931	Killing his employer	Taken forcibly from hospital. No indictment despite numerous witnesses.[110]^:9–10
Walker, David, his wife and four children		African-American	Hickman	Fulton	Kentucky	1908	Using inappropriate language with a white woman	[111]
Grant, George		African-American	Darien	McIntosh	Georgia	1930	Killing a police officer, and wounding three other people	Sheriff: "I don't know who killed the nigger and I don't give a damn."[110]^:10
Daniels, Lige	16-18	African-American	Center	Shelby	Texas	1920	Accused of murdering a white woman.	Taken from jail by a mob of approx 1000 to the town square and hanged[112]
Gunn, Raymond		African-American	Maryville	Nodaway	Missouri	1931	Murdering a white woman	Burned to death. National Guard stood by and watched.[110]^:10
Lowry, Henry ("a negro sharecropper")		African-American	Nodena	Mississippi	Arkansas	1921	Asked for his wages	Burned to death; crowd of 500[110]^:3
Hartfield, John		African-American	Ellisville	Jones	Mississippi	1919	Assaulting a young white woman	"The biggest newspaper in the state, Jackson Daily News, carried headlines announcing the exact time and place of the coming orgy.[113] Ten thousand people answered the paper's invitation and they were addressed by the District Attorney, T. W. Wilson, while the lynching was going on."[110]^:9
Richardson, Bunk		African-American	Gadsden	Etowah	Alabama	1906	Sentenced to death without being charged with any crime; Governor commuted it to life imprisonment.	Mob seized him from the jail.
Wise, Mrs.		African-American	Frankfort (Frankford?)		Virginia (West Virginia?)	1931	Objected to her daughter being taken out for "rides" with white Klansmen.	[110]^:8
Belton Roy	18	White	Tulsa	Tulsa	Oklahoma	1920	Suspicion of murder of cab driver	[114]
Tillis, Dave		African-American	Crockett	Houston	Texas	1932	"Demanded an accounting from his landlord. Charged with 'entering the bedroom of a white woman'".	[110]^:4–5
Hughes, George		African-American	Sherman	Grayson	Texas	1930	Pled guilty to criminal assault.	Courthouse stormed (during trial), burned down with Hughes locked in vault, fire hoses cut. Body then dragged behind car and hung, and fire lit under it. Followed by riot and destruction of black businesses. Two persons received two-year sentences for violence.[115]
Thompson, Allie		African-American	Culpeper	Culpeper	Virginia	1918	Assault	[19]
Craven, Charles		African-American	Leesburg	Loudoun	Virginia	1902	Assault	[19]
Parker, John		African-American	Conway	Faulkner	Arkansas	1931	Stealing some peaches	[110] < <^:4
Abram Smith[116]	19	African-American	Marion	Grant	Indiana	1930	Accessory to homicide during holdup of white man; rumors of rape	No charges filed.
Till, Emmett	14	African-American	Money	LeFlore	Mississippi	1955	Flirting with white woman	Beaten and mutilated before shooting him in the head and sinking his body in the Tallahatchie River. Perpetrators acquitted by all-white jury, then openly admitted they did it. Historical markers shot and defaced 2006–2018.[117]
Anthony Crawford[118]	51	African-American	Abbeville	Abbeville	South Carolina	1916	Offensive language	Coroner's jury: "persons unknown"
Herman Arthur and brother Irving	19 and 28-years-old	African-American	Paris, Texas	Lamar County	Texas	1917	Murder	Pulled from jail and burned alive
Charles Wright[116]	21	African-American	Rosewood	Levy	Florida	1930	Homicide during holdup of white man; rumors of rape	No charges filed.
Claude Neal	23	African-American	Greenwood	Jackson	Florida	1934	Rape and murder of 19 year old white female	Lynchers said he "didn't deserve a trial". Castrated, forced to consume his genitals, stabbed, burned with hot irons, toes and fingers removed, hung, body tied behind automobile. Followed by Marianna riots. Important case in helping to bring lynching to an end.
Dr Benjamin E Ward	37	White	Norman	Cleveland	Oklahoma	1915	Murdering his wife	Mob expected him to be freed on grounds of insanity.[119]
Ell Persons	about 50	African-American	Memphis	Shelby	Tennessee	1917	Raping and killing a white girl	No charges filed.
Fred Rochelle	16	African-American	Bartow	Polk	Florida	1901	Murder and rape of a white woman	Doused with kerosene and burned. Special train from Lakeland to see the "barbecue".
McIlherron, Jim [120]		African-American	Estill Springs	Franklin	Tennessee	1918	Killing two white people	Tortured, then burned alive. Spectators came from as far as 50 miles away. Postcards sold. "No information sufficient to indict."
Jesse Washington[121]	17	African-American	Waco	McLennan	Texas	1916	Murder; Washington confessed and a jury found him guilty.	Dragged behind car, castrated, fingers cut off, ear cut off, burned alive. Professionally photographed; pictures sold as postcards. Lynching of "political value" to Sheriff and to the Judge who presided over his trial. "On the way to the scene of the burning, people on every hand took a hand in showing their feelings in the matter by striking the Negro with anything obtainable, some struck him with shovels, bricks, clubs and others stabbed him and cut him until when he was strung up his body was a solid color of red."[121]^:5
Carter, John[122]	38	African-American	Little Rock	Pulaski	Arkansas	1927	Attacking a white woman and her mother	No charges filed; "mob" responsible.
July Perry[123]	52	African-American	Ocoee	Orange	Florida	1920	Sign on body: "This is what we do to niggers that vote."	Prosperous black farmer. See Ocoee massacre.
Leo Frank	31	Jewish	Marietta	Cobb	Georgia	1915	Killing a 13-year-old girl	No charges filed; posthumously pardoned.
Mary Turner[124]	18	African-American		Bridge joining Brooks County and Lowndes County, Georgia	Georgia	1918	Publicly opposed and threatened legal action against white people who had murdered her husband, unfairly accused (according to her) of killing an abusive landowner.	"Hung her upside down from a tree, doused her in gasoline and motor oil and set her on fire. Turner was still alive when a member of the mob split her abdomen open with a knife and her unborn child fell on the ground. The baby was stomped and crushed as it fell to the ground. Turner's body was riddled with hundreds of bullets."
Hayes Turner	25	African-American	Morven	Brooks	Georgia	1918	Accused of helping kill an abusive landowner.	Wife Mary killed next day for defending him.
Reuben Stacey (also found as Rubin Stacy)	37	African-American	Fort Lauderdale	Broward	Florida	1935	Assault with a knife	Law enforcement officer; grand jury refused to indict.[125]
Carter, Sam	45	African-American	Rosewood	Levy	Florida	1923	Assault, rape, and robbery of a white woman	Tortured. Shot before being hanged. See Rosewood massacre.
Pitts, Slab		African-American	Toyah	Reeves	Texas	1906	Living with a white woman	Dragged to death before being hung.[126]
Shipp, Thomas[116][127][128]	18	African-American	Marion	Grant	Indiana	1930	Accessory to homicide during holdup of white man; rumors of rape	No charges filed.
Willie Earle	24	African-American	Greenville	Greenville	South Carolina	1947	Killing of taxi driver	31 suspects charged; all acquitted.
Miller Jim	47	White	Pontotoc	Pontotoc	Oklahoma	1909	Suspicion of murder of a lawman	[129]
Burrell, Berry	38	White	Pontotoc	Pontotoc	Oklahoma	1909	Suspicion of murder of a lawman	[129]
Allen, Joseph	43	White	Pontotoc	Pontotoc	Oklahoma	1909	Suspicion of murder of a lawman	[129]
West, Jesse	46	White	Pontotoc	Pontotoc	Oklahoma	1909	Suspicion of murder of a lawman	[129]
Jarvis, Washington	25	White	Madison	Madison	Florida	1903	Accused of murdering his cousin.	[130]
Willie James Howard[131]	15	African-American	Live Oak	Suwannee	Florida	1944	Sending Christmas card with "a note expressing his affection" to a white girl.	Forced to jump to his death in the Suwanee River. Grand jury refused to indict.
Parker, Mack Charles	22 or 23	African-American	Bridge over Pearl River between Mississippi and Louisiana	Pearl River	Mississippi	1959	Rape and kidnapping of a white woman; charges possibly fabricated.	No one indicted.
Donald, Michael	19	African-American	Mobile	Mobile	Alabama	1981	None (Klan looked to kill a black man because killer of white policeman got mistrial).	Three Klansmen (Henry Hays, James Knowles, and Benjamin Cox) were convicted of Donald's murder. Henry Hays was sentenced to death and executed in the electric chair in 1997. James Knowles and Benjamin Cox were sentenced to life in prison. A civil suit against the United Klans of America caused their bankruptcy.
Williams, Andrew	35	African-American	Houston	Chickasaw	Mississippi	1913	Murder of John C. Williams, Wife of the Deputy Chancery Clerk	Dragged from jail and hanged at a nearby tree, upon the alleged statement of two African-American women [132]; the women who made the statement were arrested the next day for making a false statement, according to one source [133] and/or disappeared.[134] The day after Williams was lynched, a second African-American, named in different reports as 'Divel Rucker', 'Dizell Rucker' and 'Dibrell Tucker; was lynched and burned at the stake on the assumption that he, not Williams, was the actual murdered [135][136]
Rucker, Divel	20	African-American	Houston	Chickasaw	Mississippi	1913	Murder of John C. Williams, Wife of the Deputy Chancery Clerk	The day after Andrew Williams was lynched by hanging for this murder, Rucker was presumed by the mob to be the actual murderer and, allegedly, confessed to the crime. He was tied to an iron stake, covered with tar, and set afire. The family of the victim shot him as he was burning[137] According to the New York Sun report, "The Rucker lynching was the most spectacular in the history of Mississippi and there was no attempt at concealment or evasion."[138][136]
Rembert, Winifred	19	African-American	Cuthbert	Randolph	Georgia	1965	Fighting with deputy while in jail for stealing car to get away from two men shooting at him.	Survived. As of 2019, Rembert is a successful leatherwork artist. He has had at least two documentary films made about his story.[139][140][141][142][143]
Turks, Willie	34	African-American	New York City	Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn	New York	1982	drove through a majority-white neighborhood between his subway maintenance shifts	[144]
Griffith, Michael	23	Afro-Caribbean	New York City	Howard Beach, Queens	New York	1986	walked through a majority-white neighborhood after his car broke down
Hawkins, Yusef	16	African-American	New York City	Bensonhurst, Brooklyn	New York	1989	either mistaken as or randomly targeted in place of another black teenager who was dating a local girl	Hawkins' murder became a major political issue during the 1989 New York City mayoral election season and, alongside the lynchings of Willie Turks and Michael Griffith, played a role in the unseating of incumbent mayor Ed Koch.
Riley, Joseph and Jones, Virgil, Robert and Thomas		African-American	Russellville	Logan County	Kentucky	1908	Rufus Browder, a friend and lodge lodge brother of the group, killed his employer with an axe after being shot in the chest. Browder was arrested and sent to Louisville. The four victims had expressed approval of Browder's action and were jailed for disturbing the peace after holding a meeting.	On August 1, 1908 a mob demanded release of the men, and lynched them from a tree. A note pinned to one of the men read, "Let this be a warning to you niggers to let white people alone or you will go the same way."[145]
Marshall, Robert		African-American	Price	Carbon	Utah	1925	Accused of killing a white guard	The allegation was based on the testimony of two young boys who said they saw a black man running from the scene of the crime. Marshall was lynched in front of a crowd of 1,000. When the sheriff arrived, he cut Marshall down and was putting him in the car when Marshall made noise indicating he was alive. The mob shouted to lynch him again. Afterward, Marshall's body was put on display in the funeral parlor and photos of the lynching were sold door-to-door for 25 cents. In 1998 the community provided a headstone for him.[146]
Mosely, Sam		African-American	Florida	Columbia	Florida	1919	Accused of assaulting a white woman.	[147]

See also

• Lists of killings by law enforcement officers in the United States
• Red Summer
• The National Memorial for Peace and Justice

References

1. "Lynchings: By State and Race, 1882–1968". University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law. Archived from the original on June 29, 2010. Retrieved July 26, 2010. Statistics provided by the Archives at Tuskegee Institute.
2. "Lynching, Whites and Negroes, 1882 – 1968" (PDF). Tuskegee University. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 13, 2016.
3. Wells, Ida B. (2014). Southern Horrors (1892) in On Lynching. Dover Books. ISBN 978-0486779997.
4. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma (New York, 1944), page 561.
5. Gonzales-Day, Ken (2006). Lynching in the West, 1850–1935. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3781-2.
6. Lovrien, Jimmy (September 17, 2018). "Finnish immigrant was 'victim of warmongers' 100 years ago in..." www.duluthnewstribune.com. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
7. "100 Years Ago this Week, During WW 1, a German-American Was Lynched - History News Network". historynewsnetwork.org. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
8. Delucia, Christine (2003). "Getting the Story Straight: Press Coverage of Italian-American Lynchings from 1856-1910". Italian Americana. 21 (2): 212–221. JSTOR 29776894.
9. Blakemore, Erin. "The Grisly Story of America's Largest Lynching". HISTORY. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
10. "Three Ialians lynched in Louisiana". The Journal and Tribune. August 10, 1896. p. 1. Retrieved March 6, 2020.
11. "Act of Unusual Atrocity". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. August 9, 1899. p. 2. Italian authorities regard lynchings as very serious
12. Tebbe, Jen (November 7, 2017). "Elijah Lovejoy: An American Martyr". Missouri Historical Society.
13. Berger, Paul (December 20, 2014). "Midnight in Tennessee - The Untold Story of the First Jewish Lynching in America". Haaretz. Retrieved May 15, 2018. In 1888, Amos Miller, a black man accused of raping a white woman, was dragged from court in Franklin and hung from the courthouse railings.
14. "Judge Lynch Presided. Would-Be Murderer Strung Up at Franklin. His Most Atrocious Assault on an Officer Avenged. The Body Dangling by the Roadside on the Outskirts. He Also Shot a Circus Man, Who Was Brought to Nashville for Treatment--A Deserved Fate". The Daily American. Nashville, Tennessee. April 30, 1891. Retrieved May 14, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
15. "A Night of Excitement. David Jones, the Murderer of Murray, Taken from the Jail by a Mob. Murderer Offers Resistance, and is Shot Twice. Afterwards Taken to the Public Square and Hanged in Front of the Station House. The Hanging Witnesses by Immense Crowd of Excited Citizens. Efforts of the Mayor to Restore Quiet. Gov. Brown Makes an Appeal in Behalf of Law and Order". Nashville Union and American. March 26, 2018. p. 4. Retrieved May 3, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
16. "The Nashville Lynching Case". The Chicago Tribune. March 28, 1872. p. 3. Retrieved May 3, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
17. "Finally Successful. An Attempt to Lynch Negroes At Nashville, Tenn., Successfully Resisted. The Government Takes Charge of the Jail Forces--One of the Lynchers Killed. Another Attempt Proves Successful, and the Negro Is Hanged. Crimes". The Courier. Waterloo, Iowa. May 2, 1892. p. 2. Retrieved April 27, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
18. http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/modlang/carasi/courses/0000000.SPRING.17.TEACHING/03.ITAL-AM.spring17/04.ITAM.COURSE.MATERIALS/ITAM.ARTICLES/SALVETTI.complete.pdf
19. Thomas-Lester, Avis (July 7, 2005). "From the archives: State Lives With a Legacy of Terror as Nation Pays Tribute to Victims' Descendants". Washington Post. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
20. "First Of Three Young, Black Lynching Victims In Loudoun County To Be Memorialized".
21. "Shameful Past: Lynchings on Delmarva- Magruder Fletcher Lynched in Accomac in 1889". www.wboc.com.
22. Allman, T. D. (2013). Finding Florida. The True History of the Sunshine State. Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 9780802120762.
23. "A Fearful Outrage. A Negro Murderer Lynched by a Few Citizens in Nashville--A Mob Looking On and Endorsing the Deed. The State Disgraced by a Supine Set of Officers--An Unmitigated Outrage Against Law and Decency. A Crime for Which the Perpetrators Out to be Made to Pay with Their Lives--The Whole State Demands It". Memphis Daily Appeal. May 3, 1875. p. 1. Retrieved June 5, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
24. Ball, Nathaniel C. (September 30, 2015). "Memphis and the Lynching at the Curve". The Benjamin L. Hooks Institute for Social Change, University of Memphis. Retrieved May 15, 2018.
25. "NEGRO LYNCHED / Murder of a White Woman in Missouri Swung from a Bridge". Evening Argus (Owosso, Michigan). August 16, 1895. p. 4.
26. McCaslin, Richard B. (June 15, 2010). "Great Hamging at Gainesville". Handbook of Texas Online, Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved May 30, 2014.
27. Smallwood, James (December 1976). "Disaffection in Confederate Texas: The Great Hanging at Gainesville". Civil War History. 22 (4). pp. 349–360.
28. "Ida B. Wells and the Lynching of Black Women". The New York Times. April 28, 2018. Retrieved January 22, 2019.
29. "Kansas City to Dedicate Historical Marker for Lynching". Missouri Catholic Conference. November 30, 2018.
30. Max, Elyse (November 13, 2018). "Support Truth and Reconciliation: Marker Dedication Ceremony for Kansas City Lynching Victim Levi Harrington". Missourians for alternatives to the death penalty. Archived from the original on December 4, 2018. Retrieved December 4, 2018.
31. "Community leaders gather to remember local lynching victim". Missouri Times. April 2, 2018.
32. Johnson, Michelle Tyrene (November 30, 2018). "Kansas City Erects First Memorial To Remember A Victim Of Lynching". KCUR.
33. "George Kearney". New York Herald. July 19, 1998.
34. Spahr, Rob (September 24, 2012). "Lynching of former slave memorialized as 'low point' in Eatontown history". Retrieved December 24, 2017.
35. "Blue Earth County Minnesota Genealogy and History". genealogytrails.com.
36. "Map of White Supremacy mob violence". Retrieved January 7, 2019.
37. "This Day in History". Mankato Magazine. April 25, 2012. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
38. Judy Putnam (April 27, 2018). "Putnam: Delhi Township rethinks park called Deadman's Hill, named after 1866 lynching". Lansing State Journal. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
39. "The Criminal Calendar". The Saturday Evening Press (Menasha, Wisconsin). May 1, 1879.
40. "Assassination in Starkville". Clarion-Ledger. March 26, 1879. Retrieved February 14, 2019.
41. "The Lynching in Washington Parish". Times-Picayune. February 27, 1884. p. 7.
42. Dan, Nicole (September 27, 2017). "At Least 21 Lynched In Alachua County, Historical Commission Confirms". WUFT News. Retrieved January 9, 2019.
43. Last, Anne M. (September 19, 2015). "Strange Fruit and Spanish Moss: January 12, 1894: Charles Willis".
44. "Lynched a Suspected Negro". New York Times. July 5, 1896. p. 24.
45. Liz Shepard (April 30, 2018). "Port Huron's past included on lynching memorial". The Times Herald. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
46. "Lynching of a Negro Murderer". Harrisburg Daily Independent. March 15, 1894. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
47. "Starkville". Carolina Watchman. May 8, 1879. Retrieved December 19, 2018.
48. "Two Taught Ropes" (PDF). Memphis Daily Appeal. May 6, 1879. Retrieved December 19, 2018.
49. Gaddis, Elijah; Kotch, Seth. "A Red Record. Revealing lynching sites in North Carolina and South Carolina". University of North Carolina.
50. "Southern Gleanings". Magnolia Gazette. July 17, 1885. Retrieved November 20, 2018.
51. "State and domestic". The Rice belt journal. February 2, 1909. Retrieved February 10, 2020.
52. "RAPE, LYNCH NEGRO MOTHER". Chicago Defender. December 18, 1915.
53. "Mississippi Negro Hanged". The Tennessean. June 18, 1911. Retrieved October 3, 2019.
54. "Negro Who Assaults White Man in Union Parish Put to Death". The Shreveport Times. April 1, 1914. Retrieved March 15, 2020.
55. "Negro Lynched near Rice". Tampa Tribune. August 20, 1916. p. 2.
56. Ginzburg, Ralph (1988). 100 Years of Lynchings. Black Classic Press. p. 166. ISBN 9780933121188.
57. "Woman's Impatience Revealed as Cause of Porter's Death". New York Negro World. May 29, 1920. The woman sent a telegram to the next station stating that Scott had insulted her. When the train stopped, Scott was removed by a deputy sheriff. From there the story followed the usual lynching pattern. A mob "over-powered" the sheriff and killed the Negro. The coroner’s jury returned the usual verdict, "Death at the hands of parties unknown."
58. McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer. The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. Henry Holt. ISBN 9780805089066.
59. Brundage, William Fitzhugh (1993). Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880-1930. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252063459.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) - Total pages: 375
60. "Lynchings". Grenada Sentinel. January 5, 1901. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
61. "Clio - Welcome". Clio.
62. "Lynching memorial shows women were victims, too". The Conversation. April 27, 2018. Retrieved January 22, 2019.
63. "Lynchings" (PDF). St. Tammany Farmer (Covington, Louisiana). February 13, 1904. p. 6. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
64. "Isadore Banks (Murder of)". Retrieved January 10, 2019.
65. Schwarz, Ted (August 13, 2008). "I'll Get My Rest When the Lord Is Done With Me Here". Retrieved January 10, 2019.
66. People, National Association for the Advancement of Colored (1919). Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States, 1889-1918. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. p. 24. Boisy Long.
67. The Crisis. The Crisis Publishing Company, Inc. October 1923. p. 260.
68. "George.Buddington.1926". The Cincinnati Enquirer. p. 10. Retrieved January 9, 2019.
69. Ward, Jason Morgan (2016). Hanging bridge : racial violence and America's civil rights century. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199376568. OCLC 921864717.
70. Mitchell, Jerry (May 1, 2016). ""Hanging Bridge" signing May 2 at Lemuria". Clarion Ledger. Retrieved December 26, 2017.
71. Scruggs, David C (January 15, 1989). "Scales Of Justice Hung From Tree With 1 Strong Limb". Retrieved December 18, 2018.
72. "Florida Frontiers "The Lynching of James Clark"". Retrieved December 18, 2018.
73. Bennett, Kathy (2017). "Lynching". Tennessee Encyclopedia. University of Tennessee Press.
74. McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. Henry Holt and Company. p. 129. ISBN 9780805089066.
75. McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. Henry Holt and Company. p. 125. ISBN 9780805089066.
76. McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. Henry Holt and Company. pp. 94–95. ISBN 9780805089066.
77. Teachout, Terry (May 30, 1999). "Close to Home". Nytimes.com. Retrieved December 26, 2017.
78. McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. Henry Holt and Company. pp. 81–95. ISBN 9780805089066.
79. "Negro Kills One; Shoots Up Five, Fighting Posse". Atlanta Constitution. May 2, 1919.
80. McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. Henry Holt and Company. p. 51. ISBN 9780805089066.
81. "Mob uses Rope, to Lynch Negro". Atlanta Constitution. May 15, 1919.
82. McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. Henry Holt and Company. p. 52. ISBN 9780805089066.
83. "Frank Livingston (Lynching of)". Retrieved November 11, 2018.
84. Equal Justice Initiative (2015). "Lynching In America / The Lynching of William Miller". Historical Marker Database. Retrieved May 2, 2018.
85. Voogd, Jan (2008). Race Riots and Resistance: the Red Summer of 1919. Peter Lang Publishing Group. ISBN 9781433100673.
86. Green, Frank (March 2, 2014). "Memories of 1925 lynching linger in Waverly". Richmond Times-Dispatch. Retrieved October 15, 2018.
87. "Lynching in Waverly, Virginia, Is Revisited". Equal Justice Initiative. March 7, 2014. Retrieved October 15, 2018.
88. Hui, T. Keung (October 29, 2018). "A black man was lynched near Rolesville in 1918. Now Wake students are honoring him".
89. Wake County Drum Majors for Social Justice. "The 1918 Lynching of George Taylor".
90. Editorial Board (March 5, 2014). "Confronting Virginia's Racial History". News & Advance.
91. "Negro Lynched in Kentucky". Lewiston Daily Sun. November 1, 1901.
92. "Los Angeles Herald 12 February 1901 — California Digital Newspaper Collection". cdnc.ucr.edu.
93. Pfeifer, Michael James (2004). Rough Justice: Lynching and American Society, 1874-1947. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252029172.
94. Newton, M. (2005). The FBI and the KKK: A Critical History. p. 151. ISBN 9781476605104. Retrieved January 6, 2016.
95. Marion, Ann (September 30, 2016). "New plaque memorializes 1923 lynching victim James T. Scott". Columbia Missourian. Retrieved May 25, 2018.
96. Howe, Barton Grover (May 8, 2003). "Legacy of a lynching". Columbia Missourian. Retrieved May 25, 2018.
97. Eric S. Smith, "Zachariah Walker's lynching haunts the city", Daily Local News (Chester County), August 13, 2011, accessed January 5, 2016.
98. McPhate, Mike (November 29, 2017). "When a San Jose mob stormed a jail and lynched two men". The California Sun. Retrieved September 25, 2018.
99. Gregory, Vanessa (April 25, 2018). "A Lynching's Long Shadow". New York Times Magazine.
100. Herald Democrat 1919, p. 1.
101. Richmond Times-Dispatch 1919, p. 1.
102. "Negro Is Lynched by Arkansas Mob". Ellensburg Daily Record. December 27, 1920.
103. "Leader of Mob an Ex-U.S. Senator". Fredericksburg Daily Star. September 11, 1908.
104. "Ex-Senator Sullivan Will Stand Consequences for Directing Shooting". New York Times. September 10, 1908. Retrieved May 7, 2018.
105. Sassoubre, Ticien Marie (2008). "Avoiding Adjudication in William Faulkner's Go Down, Moses and Intruder in the Dust". Criticism. 49 (2): 183–214. doi:10.1353/crt.0.0016.
106. "Mob Lynches Negro Boy Who Shot Grocer. Body of Masked Men Take Him From Hospital. Samuel Smith, 15, Left Hanging Near Home of Ike Eastwood, Whom He Wounded Friday Night". Nashville Tennessean. December 16, 1924. pp. 1, 5. Retrieved May 2, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
107. "'Quiet Again Resigns; Protest of Italians Brings Investigation" (PDF). Tampa Morning Tribune. September 22, 1910.
108. Boulden, Ben. "The Lynching of Sanford Lewis". Fort Smith Historical Society. Retrieved April 28, 2018.
109. Lyman, Brian (April 20, 2018). "'There will be lynchings': How the Advertiser failed victims of racial terror". Montgomery Advertiser.
110. Haywood, Harry; Howard, Milton (1932). Lynching (PDF). Retrieved April 20, 2018.
111. "New Lynching Memorial Evokes Terror of Victims". Associated Press. April 23, 2018.
112. "America's Black Holocaust Museum | Lige Daniels". abhmuseum.org.
113. "3,000 Will Burn Negro — John Hartfield Will Be Lynched by Ellisville Mob at 5 o'clock This Afternoon — Negro Jerky and Sullen as Burning Hour Nears". New Orleans States (reprinted from Jackspn Daily News). June 26, 1919.
114. "A pair of lynchings year before massacre shook Tulsa". Tulsa World. May 31, 2020. Retrieved July 2, 2020.
115. Thompson, Nolan (2010). "Sherman Riot of 1930". Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved May 28, 2018.
116. Leroux, Charles (February 14, 1993). "Lynching Black Man, Now 78, Relates Narrow Escape, Tells How Two Companions Were Lynched In Indiana In 1930". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
117. Haag, Matthew (August 6, 2018). "Emmett Till Sign Is Hit With Bullets Again, 35 Days After Being Replaced". New York Times.
118. "Anthony Crawford, a Negro of Wealth, Lynched Saturday". Abbeville Press and Banner. Abbeville, South Carolina. October 25, 1917. p. 1. Retrieved December 21, 2015.
119. Burke, J. J. (May 13, 1915). "The Norman Transcript (Norman, Okla.), Vol. 26, No. 36, Ed. 1 Thursday, May 13, 1915". The Gateway to Oklahoma History.
120. White, Walter F. (May 1918). "The Burning of James McIlherron. An N.A.A.C.P. Investigation" (PDF). The Crisis. pp. 16–20. Retrieved March 2, 2018.
121. "The Waco Horror (supplement to The Crisis)". The Crisis. July 1916. Retrieved March 8, 2018.
122. Harp, Stephanie. "John Carter: A Scapegoat for Anger". America's Black Holocaust Museum.
123. Federal Writers' Project of the Work Projects Administration for the State of Florida. "The Ocoee Riot". Retrieved February 22, 2018.
124. NAACP. "History of Lynchings". Retrieved March 2, 2018.
125. "His Name Was Rubin Stacy". August 1, 2018.
126. "Cowboys Lynch Negro in Toyah, Texas for living with a white woman". Reading Times. Reading, Pennsylvania. October 27, 1906. Retrieved March 6, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
127. Nolin, Robert (July 17, 2010). "Mob lynched black man in Fort Lauderdale 75 years ago". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved December 29, 2017.
128. Brooks, Bryan (July 17, 1988). "The Day They Lynched Reuben Stacey". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved December 29, 2017.
129. "Four Men Pay Price of Bobbitt's Death/ Miller, Allen, West and Burrell are Lynched by Mob at Ada this Morning". The Daily Ardmoreite. oklahomahistory.net. April 19, 1909. Retrieved July 1, 2020.
130. "White Man Lynched". The Tennessean. Newspapers.com. May 20, 1903. Retrieved July 2, 2020.
131. Wethersbee, Tonya J. (August 29, 2015). "Before Emmett Till's Death, Willie James Howard, 15, Was Murdered in Fla". The Root. Retrieved March 8, 2018.
132. Associated Press, see Nashville Banner Feb. 7, 1913 pg. 1
133. Lincoln, NE, Star February 9, 1913 p. 1
134. e.g. San Francisco Call, February 9, 1913 p. 26
135. New York Sun, February 9, 1913 p. 1, Oakland CA Tribute February 9, pg. 43
136. "Burn Negro At Stake: Second Lynching for Murder of Mrs. Williams". Chattanooga, Tennessee: Chattanooga Times. February 9, 1913. p. 1. Retrieved March 6, 2020.
137. e.g. Lincoln Star February 9, 1913 p. 1
138. New York Sun, February 9, 1913 p. 1
139. "Nearly lynched in the 1960s, New Haven man uses art to teach others about the past". FOX 61. March 2, 2017. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
140. "The Indelible Images of Winfred Rembert | The Folk Art Society of America". folkart.org. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
141. "All Me: The Life and Times of Winfred Rembert". www.allmethemovie.com. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
142. "Ashes to Ashes". Mountainfilm. May 7, 2019. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
143. "He Survived A Near-Lynching. 50 Years Later, He's Still Healing". National Public Radio. November 15, 2019. Retrieved July 20, 2020.
144. "Willie Turks, a black MTA worker, was pulled from a car and killed by a white mob in 1982". www.nydailynews.comm. Retrieved January 20, 2020.
145. "Photographic postcard of four African-American men hanging from their necks by ropes in a cedar tree". oshkosh.pastperfectonline.com. Oskosh Public Museum. June 15, 2006. Retrieved July 14, 2020.
146. Brooke, James (April 4, 1998). "Memories of Lynching Divide a Town". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
147. McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. Henry Holt and Company. p. 245. ISBN 9780805089066.

• Herald Democrat (July 25, 1919). "Teas mob hangs Negro". The Herald Democrat. Leadville, Colorado. Retrieved August 3, 2019.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Richmond Times-Dispatch (August 3, 1919). "Four Held In Lynching". Richmond Times-Dispatch. Richmond, Virginia: Times Dispatch Pub. Co. pp. 1–54. ISSN 2333-7761. OCLC 9493729. Retrieved August 3, 2019.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)