Don Juan (poem)

In English literature, Don Juan (1819–24), by Lord Byron, is a satirical epic poem derived from the Spanish legend of Don Juan, which portrays Don Juan not as a womaniser, but as a man easily seduced by women.[1] As genre literature, Don Juan is a thematic variation of the epic poem.[2]. Upon publication in 1819, cantos I and II were criticised as immoral; at his death in 1824, Lord Byron had written sixteen of seventeen cantos, and canto XVII is an incomplete text.

Don Juan
First edition cover of Don Juan (1819)
AuthorLord Byron
CountryUnited Kingdom
LanguageEnglish
GenreHistorical novel, satire
Publication date
1819–1824 (final cantos published posthumously)
Pages555 pages
Preceded byChilde Harold's Pilgrimage 
Followed byMazeppa 

Composition
Frontispiece to the 1824 edition of Don Juan (Benbowpublisher)

Lord Byron was a prolific writer for whom "the composition of his great poem, Don Juan, was coextensive with a major part of his poetical life"; he wrote the first canto in late 1818, and the seventeenth canto in early 1823.[3] Canto I was written in September 1818, and canto II was written in December–January 1818–1819; both cantos were published on 15 July 1819. Cantos III and IV were written in winter of 1819–1820 and canto V was written in October–November 1820, but the publication of cantos III, IV, and V was delayed 'til 8 August 1821.

Byron began to write canto VI in June 1822, and had completed writing canto XVI in March 1823. Given the moralistic notoriety of the satirical, epic poem, John Murray refused to publish the latter cantos of Don Juan, which then were entrusted to John Hunt, who published the cantos over a period of months; cantos VI, VII, and VIII, with a Preface, were published on 15 July 1823; cantos IX, X, and XI were published on 29 August 1823; cantos XII, XIII, and XIV were published on 17 December 1823; and cantos XV and XVI on 26 March 1824.[4]

Structure

Told with sixteen thousand lines, arranged in sixteen cantos, the poetic narrative of Don Juan (1819–24) is written in ottava rima, wherein each stanza is composed of eight iambic pentameters with the rhyme scheme of ab ab ab cc. For the composition of a satirical epic poem, ottava rima uses the final rhyming couplet as a line of humour, to achieve a rhetorical anticlimax realised with an abrupt transition, from a lofty style of writing to a vulgar style of writing.[5] In the example passage from Don Juan, canto I, stanza 1, lines 3–6, the Spanish name Juan is rhymed with the English true one; the name-word is spoken in English, as /ˈdʒuːən/ JOO-ən, which is the recurring pattern of enunciation used for pronouncing foreign names and words in the orthography of English.[6]

Till, after cloying the gazettes with cant,
  The age discovers he is not the true one;
Of such as these I should not care to vaunt,
  I'll therefore take our ancient friend Don Juan— [7]

— Don Juan, canto I, stanza 1, lines 3–6

The Argument

Don Juan begins with the birth of the hero, Don Juan, in Seville, Spain. As a sexually precocious adolescent boy, Juan has a love affair with a married friend of his mother. When the woman's husband discovers her affair with the boy, Don Juan is sent to the distant city of Cádiz. On the way, he is shipwrecked on an island in the Aegean Sea, and there meets the daughter of the pirate whose men later sell Don Juan into Turkish slavery. At the slave market of Constantinople, the sultana sees Don Juan up for sale, and orders him bought and then disguised as a girl, in order to sneak him into her chambers. Consequent to arousing the jealousy of the sultana, Don Juan barely escapes alive from the harem. He then soldiers in the Imperial Russian army, rescues a Muslim girl, and attracts the favour of Empress Catherine the Great, who includes him to the royal court. In the course of Russian life, Don Juan falls ill because of the climate, and Catherine returns him to England, as a Russian courtier. In London, the diplomat Don Juan finds a guardian for the Muslim girl. The narrative then relates Don Juan's ensuing adventures with the British aristocracy.[8]

Synopsis

Canto I

Don Juan lives in Seville with his father, Don José, and his mother, Donna Inez. The romantic Donna Julia, the twenty-three-year-old wife of Don Alfonso, fancies and lusts for the sixteen-year-old Don Juan. Despite attempting to resist his charms, Julia enters into a love affair with Juan, and falls in love. Suspecting his wife's infidelity, Don Alfonso bursts into their bedroom, followed by a posse comitatus of men who find no-one and nothing suspicious upon searching their bedroom of master, for Juan was hiding in the bed; Don Alfonso and his posse leave the room. Later returning alone to his bedroom, Don Alfonso comes across Juan's shoes and they fight over the woman Julia. Breaking off the fight, Don Juan escapes. In order to thwart rumours and the consequent bad reputation that her son has brought upon himself, Donna Inez sends Don Juan away to travel, in hope that he develop a better sense of morality, whilst Donna Julia is sent to a nunnery.

Canto II

Exiled from Seville. Don Juan travels to Cádiz accompanied by Pedrillo, a tutor, and servants. Throughout the voyage, Juan pines for the love of Donna Julia, but seasickness distracts him. A storm wrecks the ship; Juan, his entourage, and some sailors escape in a long boat. Adrift in the Aegean Sea, they soon run out of food and eat Don Juan's dog. Afterwards, the sailors turn cannibal and eat Pedrillo; the cannibal sailors go mad and die. Juan is the sole survivor of the shipwreck and the escape in the long boat. Upon landfall at one of the Cyclades islands, two women, Haidée and Zoe, her maid, discover the shipwrecked Juan and care for him in a cave by the beach. Haidée and Juan fall in love, despite neither speaking or understanding the language of the other. Moreover, Haidée's father, Lambro, is a pirate and a slaver who dislikes Don Juan.

Canto III

In a long digression from the story of Don Juan, the poet Byron provides a descriptive catalogue of the celebrations of the lovers Haidée and Don Juan. The islanders believe that Haidée's father, Lambro, has died, but he returns and witnesses their revels. Towards the end of the third canto, Byron insults his literary contemporaries William Wordsworth (1770 –1850), Robert Southey (1774 – 1843), and Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( 1772 – 1834). In "The Isles of Greece" section of the Canto III, with a numeration different from the rest of the canto and with different versification, , the poet Byron gives his political views about Greece as a slave to the Ottoman Empire.

Canto IV

The lovers Haidée and Juan wake to discover that her father, Lambro, has returned. Aided by his fellow pirates, Lambro confronts and attacks Juan. Haidée despairs at losing her lover, and eventually dies of a broken heart, with Juan's unborn child in her womb. The pirate Lambro sends Don Juan away on a ship, and he ends up at a slave market in Constantinople.

Canto V

At the slave market, Don Juan converses with an Englishman named John Johnson, telling of his lost love, whereas the more experienced John tells of having to flee from his third wife. A black eunuch from the harem, Baba, buys the infidels Juan and John, and takes them to the palace of the sultan. Taking them to an inner chamber, Baba insists that Don Juan dress as a woman, and threatens castration if he resists that demand. Finally, Juan is taken into an imperial hall to meet the sultana, Gulbeyaz, a twenty-six-year-old beauty who is the fourth, last, and favourite wife of the sultan.

Stubborn with pride, Juan refuses to kiss the foot of Gulbeyaz, but compromises by kissing her hand. She had noticed Juan at the slave market and had asked Baba to secretly buy him for her, despite risking discovery by the sultan. Gulbeyaz wants Juan to "love" her, and throws herself upon his breast. With Haidée still in his thoughts, Juan spurns Gulbeyz's sexual advances, saying "The prisoned eagle will not pair, nor I/Serve a sultana's sensual phantasy." Taken aback and enraged by the rejection, Gulbeyaz thinks of having Juan beheaded, but, instead, she breaks out in tears.

Before they can progress further into their sexual relationship, Baba rushes in and announces to Gulbeyaz and Juan that the sultan is arriving: "The sun himself has sent me like a ray/To hint that he is coming up this way." Preceded by a parade of courtiers, damsels, and eunuchs, the sultan arrives and notices the presence of an attractive Christian woman (Juan in disguise), expressing regret that a mere Christian woman should be so pretty; in that culture, Don Juan is a giaour, a non-Muslim. Byron then comments upon the necessity of securing the chastity of women in unhappy climes — that "wedlock and a padlock mean the same."

Canto VI

The sultan retires with the sultana Gulbeyaz, and Don Juan, still dressed as a woman, is taken to the overcrowded harem, where the odalisques reside. He is asked to share a couch with Dudù, a young and lovely 17-year-old girl. When asked his name, Don Juan calls himself "Juanna". She is a "kind of sleepy Venus . . . very fit to murder sleep. . . . Her talents were of the more silent class . . . pensive. . . ." Dudù gives Juanna a chaste kiss and undresses.

At three o'clock in the morning, whilst the harem are asleep, Dudù suddenly screams, and awakens agitated, while Juanna still lies asleep and snoring. The women ask Dudù the cause of her screams, and she relates a sexually suggestive dream of being in a wood, like Dante, of dislodging a reluctant golden apple that is tenaciously clinging to its bough (which, at last, willingly falls) of almost biting into that forbidden fruit, when a bee flies out from the apple and stings her to the heart. The matron of the harem decides to place Juanna with another odalisque, but Dudù begs to keep her in her own bed, whilst hiding her face in Juanna's breast. The poet is at a loss to explain why Dudù screamed.

In the morning, the sultana Gulbeyaz asks Baba to tell her how Don Juan passed the night. He tells of "her" stay in the harem, but carefully omits details about Dudù and her sensual dream. The suspicious sultana nevertheless becomes enraged, and instructs Baba to have Dudù and Juan killed in the usual manner, by drowning. Baba pleads with the sultana that killing Juan will not cure what ails her, and Gulbeyaz then summons Dudù and Juan. Before the canto ends, the narrator of the poem explains that the "Muse will take a little touch at warfare."

Canto VII

Don Juan and John Johnson escape the harem in company of two women, and the four arrive during the Russian Siege of Izmail (1789–1790), a Turkish fort at the mouth of the River Danube, on the Black Sea. The Imperial Russian Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov is preparing the final assault against the fortress at Izmail. As the battle for the fort rages, Prince Grigory Potemkin, the Russian commander-in-chief, orders Marshal Suvorov to "take Ismail at whatever price", for the greater glory of Catherine II, the Christian great empress of Russia. In the event, John Johnson presents himself to Suvorov (with whom he fought in battle at Widdin, in Bulgaria) and introduces his friend Don Juan, and that both men are ready to join the Christian fight against the pagan Turks. Marshal Suvorov is very unhappy that John and Juan have appeared at the Siege of Izmail in company of two women, who claim to be the wives of soldiers. To assuage Suvorov to consent to the women remaining with them, Juan and John tell him that the women aided their escape from the Turks.

Canto VIII

As brave soldiers in the Imperial Russian army, Don Juan and John Johnson prove fearless in the savagery and carnage of the Russian siege upon the Turks. To conquer the fort of Izmail, the Russians kill 40,000 Turks, including women and children. Being a man of noble character, Don Juan rescues a ten-year-old Muslim girl from two Cossacks intent upon raping and then killing her for being a non-Christian pagan. In that moment, Don Juan immediately resolves to adopt the girl as his child. In the course of battle against the Christian Russians, a noble Tatar Kahn and his five sons valiantly fight to the death. From the aftermath of the Siege of Izmail, Don Juan emerges a hero, and is sent to the Imperial Russian capital, Saint Petersburg, in the company of the ten-year-old Muslim girl he rescued from cossacks. Don Juan has vowed to protect that girl as his daughter. Moreover, it is not until canto X, that the name of the anonymous girl is revealed to be "Leila".

Canto IX

At the imperial Russian court, the uniformed Don Juan is a dashing, handsome, and decorated soldier who readily impresses Empress Catherine the Great, who becomes infatuated with and lustful for him. The Empress Catherine is a woman of forty-eight-years who is "just now in juicy vigour". At court, Don Juan becomes one of her favourites, and is flattered by the sexual interest of the Empress, which earns him a promotion in rank; thus, "Love is vanity,/Selfish in its beginning as its end,/Except where 'tis a mere insanity". Privately, Don Juan concerns himself with the safety and welfare of the Muslim girl he rescued at the siege of Izmail.

Canto X
Canto XI of the poem Don Juan refers to the death of John Keats as a poet "who was kill'd off by one critique". (portrait by William Hilton)

The cold clime of Russia makes Don Juan fall ill, so Empress Catherine sends him west-ward, to the warmer, temperate clime of England, in company of Leila. Ostensibly, Don Juan is a special envoy from the imperial court of Russia with nebulous responsibility for the diplomatic task of negotiating a treaty between Russia and Britain. In fact, Don Juan's special-envoy job is a sinecure, by which Empress Catherine secures his health, his favour, and his finances with money and gifts.

Canto XI

Arriving to England and making his way to London, Don Juan muses upon the democratic greatness of Britain as defender of the freedoms of ordinary men — until his musings are interrupted by a menacing Cockney robber, who demands his money or his life. In self-defence, Don Juan shoots the would be robber, but, possessed of a strong conscience, he regrets his violent haste and tends the wounds of the dying robber. Don Juan's medical effort fails, the robber mutters his last words, and dies on the London street.

Later, Don Juan is received into the English court, wherein the courtiers are in wonder of his personal handsomeness, in admiration of his dress, and charmed by his mien, but not without provoking the male jealousy of some elder peers.

In canto XI, Byron mentions John Keats (1795–1821) as a poet "who was kill'd off by one critique".

Canto XII

In England, Don Juan seeks a suitable guardian for Leila, the ten-year-old Muslim girl he rescued at the Siege of Izmail, before the Russian destruction of the city. He finds a suitable guardian for Leila in the person of Lady Pinchbeck, a woman whom London society consider a good person of admirable wit, but of rumoured inchastity.

Canto XIII

At a social event, Lady Adeline Amundeville and her husband, Lord Henry Amundeville, are hosts to Don Juan, where the narrative notes that Lady Adeline is "the fair most fatal Juan ever met", the "queen bee, the glass of all that's fair,/Whose charms made all men speak and women dumb". Anglo–Russian diplomatic relations often require meetings between Lord Henry and Don Juan ("the envoy of a secret Russian mission") whom he befriends and makes a regular guest at their mansion in London. Lady and Lord Amundeville invite distinguished guests to a party at their estate in the country. The narrative then describes the country landscape of the Amundeville estate and the décor of the estate house, which then are followed with mock-catalogues of the social activities and the personalities of the upper-class ladies and gentlemen who are the high society of royal Britain. The poet Byron views the country party of the Amundevilles as English ennui. Canto XIII concludes with the guests and their hosts retiring for the evening.

Canto XIV

Don Juan acquits himself well on a fox hunt; he is a dashing, handsome, witty man attractive to the ladies, including the Duchess of Fitz-Fulke, who flirts with him. Jealous of the duchess, who has had many love affairs, the hostess, Lady Adeline, resolves to protect the "inexperienced" Don Juan from the sexual enticements of the Duchess of Fitz-Fulke. Lady Adeline and Don Juan both are twenty-one years old; despite having a vacant heart and a cold, but proper, marriage to Lord Henry, Adeline is not in love with Don Juan.

Later in the narrative, the poet Byron tells the reader whether or not Lady Adeline and Don Juan entered into a love affair. Relative to the matter of the love affair, canto XIV contains the line: "'Tis strange — but true; for truth is always strange; Stranger than fiction".

Canto XV

Lady Adeline is at risk of losing her honour because of her apparent relation with Don Juan, whose seductive manner is deceptive, because he never seems anxious to consummate the seduction; and, being personally modest, he neither brooks nor claims superiority. To save herself from social disgrace suggested by appearances, Lady Adeline advises marriage to Don Juan, with which suggestion he agrees, but does acknowledge to her that the women to whom he is attracted usually are married. In her efforts to deduce a suitable match for him, Lady Adeline deliberately omits mention of Aurora Raby, who is a sixteen-year-old Catholic beauty most suitable to pair and marry with Don Juan. Although he is attracted to her, because she is purer of heart than the other women Lady Adeline mentioned, the adolescent Aurora reminds Don Juan of Haidée, his adopted daughter. The narrative then describes an elaborate dinner, during which Don Juan is seated between Lady Adeline and Aurora. Initially laconic, Aurora warms to the spirit of the occasion, and contributes conversation during the dinner.

Canto XVI

Smitten with the beautiful Aurora, Don Juan thinks of her upon retiring to his rooms for the evening. Later in the night, he walks into the hall outside his rooms, and views the gallery of paintings hanging from the walls. He hears footsteps and then sees a monk in cowl and beads, wondering if the monk is a ghost or a dream, yet Don Juan does not see the face of the monk, despite the monk repeatedly pacing the hallway.

The next morning, in response to Don Juan's pale face, Lady Adeline, herself, turns pale. The Duchess of Fitz-Fulke gives a hard-eyed look to Don Juan, whilst Aurora surveys him "with a kind of calm surprise". Lady Adeline wonders if he is ill, while Lord Henry guesses that Don Juan might have seen the "Black Friar" who paced the hallway the previous night. Lord Henry then relates the story of the "spirit of these walls" who used to be seen often, but has not been seen of late; and that, on his honeymoon with Lady Adeline, he saw the Black Friar ghost. Accompanied with music from her harp, Adeline sings the story of the Black Friar ghost. Aurora is silent during the song, but the face of Lady Fitz-Fulke appears mischievous upon hearing the song.

The narrative suggests that Lady Adeline sang the song about the Black Friar in order to dispel Don Juan's dismay with laughter. As the staff of the house realise the preparations for another dinner that evening, Don Juan attempts to lift his spirits. Before the evening arrives, a pregnant country girl and assorted petitioners present themselves to the estate house to ask legal help of Lord Henry, in his capacity as justice of the peace.

At dinner, Don Juan is again preoccupied with his thoughts. Upon glancing at Aurora, he catches a smile creasing her cheeks, but is uncertain of its meaning, because Aurora sits quiet, but slightly flushed of face. Lady Adeline goes about her duties as hostess, whilst the Duchess of Fitz-Fulke is very much at her ease.

Upon the hosts and guests retiring for the evening, Don Juan again thinks about Aurora, who has reawakened feelings that he felt his heart had lost. On retiring to his rooms, Don Juan again hears footfalls in the hallway. After sitting in expectation of the Black Friar ghost, the doors to Don Juan's rooms open to show that it is the friar, whose face is concealed in the hood of the habit. Don Juan pursues and pushes the friar against a wall, and notices that the ghost possesses a sweet breath, straggling curls, and red lips, and is wearing pearls beneath which is a glowing bust. Don Juan pulls back the hood to reveal the voluptuous person of the Duchess of Fitz-Fulke.

Canto XVII

At the time of Lord Byron's death in 1824, the final, seventeenth canto of Don Juan was incomplete, with little mention of the protagonist and much mention of the literary critics who objected to the points of view of the poet Byron; their criticisms amounted to: "If you are right, then everybody's wrong!" In self-defence, Byron the poet lists great people who were considered revolutionaries in their fields of endeavour, such as Martin Luther (1483 –1546) and Galileo (1564–1642), whose societies saw them outside the cultural mainstream of the time. Narratively, canto XVII concludes at the brink of resuming the narrative of Don Juan, who then was in a "tender moonlit situation" at the conclusion of canto XVI.

Dedication to Robert Southey

Lord Byron scornfully dedicated the poem Don Juan (1819–1824) to his artistic enemy Robert Southey, then the incumbent Poet Laureate (1813–43) of Britain: "You, Bob! are rather insolent, you know, / At being disappointed in your wish / To supersede all warblers here below, / And be the only Blackbird in the dish".[9] The poem's Dedication also addressed Byron's artistic quarrels with the Lake Poets.

Lord Byron dedicated the epic satire Don Juan (1819–24) to his artistic rival, Robert Southey, the Poet Laureate of Britain (1813–43)

Collectively:

You — Gentlemen! by dint of long seclusion
  From better company, have kept your own
. . .
There is a narrowness in such a notion,
Which makes me wish you'd change your lakes for ocean[10]

— Dedication: stanza V, lines 1–2 and 7–8

Individually:

And Coleridge, too, has lately taken wing,
  But like a hawk encumber'd with his hood, —
Explaining metaphysics to the nation —
I wish he would explain his Explanation.[10]

— Dedication, stanza II, lines 5–8

Precisely:

About the works of Wordsworth, Byron said: "'Tis poetry — at least by his assertion" (IV.5),[10] and Henry James Pye, the previous poet laureate, Byron criticised by pun: "four and twenty Blackbirds in a pye" (I.8), edged wordplay derived from the nursery song "Sing a Song of Sixpence".[10]

Critical reception

Background

Lord Byron's remarks and reflections about why he wrote the satirical, epic poem Don Juan are "humorous paradoxes . . . provoked by advice and opposition". In a letter to the Irish poet Thomas Moore, Byron said: 'I have finished the first canto . . . of a poem in the style and manner of Beppo, encouraged by the good success of the same. It [the new poem] is . . . meant to be a little quietly facetious upon every thing. But I doubt whether it is not — at least as far as it has gone — too free for these very modest days'."[11] Contemporary critics agreed that the poetical work, Don Juan was too free with Byron's satirical handling, interpretation, and presentation of the subjects of his poem.[12]

A month after publication of cantos I and II, (12 August 1819) Byron wrote to Murray: "You ask me for the plan of Donny Johnny; I have no plan — I had no plan; but I had or have materials. . . . You are too earnest and eager about a work never intended to be serious. Do you suppose that I could have any intention but to giggle and make giggle? — a playful satire, with as little poetry as could be helped, was what I meant". After the completion, but before the publication of cantos III, IV, V, (16 February 1821) Byron wrote to Murray: "The Fifth [canto] is so far from being the last of Don Juan, that it is hardly the beginning. I meant to take him the tour of Europe, with a proper mixture of siege, battle, and adventure, and to make him finish as Anacharsis Cloots in the French Revolution. . . . I meant to have made him a Cavalier Servente in Italy, and a cause for a divorce in England, and a Sentimental Werther–faced man in Germany, so as to show the different ridicules of the society in each of these countries, and to have displayed him gradually gâté and blasé, as he grew older, as is natural. But I had not quite fixed whether to make him end in Hell, or in an unhappy marriage, not knowing which would be the severest."[13]

Recognition

In 1821, in a letter about cantos III, IV, and V, Percy Bysshe Shelley told Byron of his "wonder and delight" in reading the narrator's presentation of content and style, because "this poem carries with it at once the stamp of originality and defiance of imitation. Nothing has ever been written like it in English, nor, if I may venture to prophesy, will there be, unless carrying upon it the mark of a secondary and borrowed light. . . . You are building up a drama such as England has not yet seen, and the task is sufficiently noble and worthy of you." About canto V, Shelley told Byron that "Every word has the stamp of immortality. . . . It fulfils, in a certain degree, what I have long preached of producing — something wholly new and relative to the age, and yet surpassingly beautiful".[14]

In 1824, Walter Scott said that in the epic poem Don Juan (1819–24) Lord Byron's writing "has embraced every topic of human life, and sounded every string of the divine harp, from its slightest to its most powerful and heart-astounding tones";[15] and Goethe said that Don Juan is "a work of boundless genius".[16]

In 1885, being neither disciple nor encomiast of Lord Byron, Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837– 1909) said that the narrative strength and thematic range of Don Juan are how Byron's poetical writing excites the reader: "Across the stanzas . . . we swim forward as over the 'broad backs of the sea'; they break and glitter, hiss and laugh, murmur and move like waves that sound or that subside. There is in them a delicious resistance, an elastic motion, which salt water has and fresh water has not. There is about them a wide wholesome air, full of vivid light and constant wind, which is only felt at sea. Life undulates and Death palpitates in the splendid verse. . . . This gift of life and variety is the supreme quality of Byron's chief poem".[17]

References
  1. English 151-03 Byron's 'Don Juan' notes Archived 18 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine, Gregg A. Hecimovich
  2. (Don Juan, canto xiv, stanza 99)
  3. Coleridge, "Introduction", p. 000.
  4. Coleridge, "Introduction", p. 000.
  5. Abrams, Meyer Howard; Harpham, Geoffrey Galt (2009). A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4130-3390-8.
  6. Fiske, Robert Hartwell (1 November 2011). Robert Hartwell Fiske's Dictionary of Unendurable English: A Compendium of Mistakes in Grammar, Usage, and Spelling with commentary on Lexicographers and Linguists. Scribner. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-4516-5134-8.
  7. Byron, George Gordon, Lord (1905). The Complete Poetical Works (Cambridge ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 747.
  8. Benét's Reader's Encyclopedia, Fourth Edition (1982) p. 282.
  9. Footnote 1 to Coleridge's "Introduction, p. 000.
  10. Byron, George Gordon, Lord (1905). The Complete Poetical Works (Cambridge ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 745.
  11. Coleridge, "Introduction', p. .
  12. Coleridge, "Introduction", p. 000.
  13. Coleridge, "Introduction".
  14. Coleridge, "Introduction", p. 000.
  15. Coleridge, "Introduction'" p. 000.
  16. Coleridge, "Introduction", p. 000.
  17. Coleridge, "Introduction", p. 000.
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