Water in Sudan

Sudan is a country that is half desert and much of the population suffers from a shortage of clean drinking water as well as a reliable source of water for agriculture. With the Nile river in the east of the country, parts of Sudan have substantial water resources, but those in the west have to rely on wadis, seasonal wells which often dry up. These imbalances in water availability are a source of hardship, as well as a source of conflict. While storage facilities are limited, many local communities have constructed makeshift dams and reservoirs, weirs, which help in stabilizing farming communities. Farmers also utilize hafirs to store rain water which falls in the rainy season, but groundwater remains a vital source of water for over 80% of Sudanese people. [1] For decades, political instability has led to terrible conditions and thwarted many projects and relief efforts, but aid is making its way through. Several water infrastructure projects have been enacted in recent years, with both domestic and international sources of funding.[2] Funding from the UN has provided 9,550 local farmers with better access to water and fertile soils. A project which also plans to replant forest cover in the wadi to reverse desertification.

Darfur  is located in an arid region, in the western part of Sudan, where water scarcity is common. Due to recent population growth, there is an increased pressure on urban water supply sources and infrastructure. Now there is a greater difficulty accessing water—especially for cattle farmers. Many women and children, mostly girls, spend countless hours walking to a clean water supply a year preventing time taking care of children and schooling. Collecting water from ponds, marshes, ditches, or hand-dug wells, often contaminated with disease-causing parasites and bacteria. Experience dry and wet seasons. Wet seasons are plentiful with rainfall and crops; however, dry seasons force families to make mile treks for water and some relocated during the dry seasons.[3][4]

Data about Sudan
  • One of the poorest countries in the world[5]
  • South Sudan has one of the weakest, underdeveloped economies
    • The economy consists of small amounts of infrastructure and high mortality rates
  • Africa’s general climate is due to proximity to the desert. Generally, a dry climate which is unfavorable agricultural conditions[5]
  • 85% or more of African countries have their land area in zones that experience little rainfall.
  • Located in Northeast Africa
  • Nearly 3 times more children younger than 15 years and about 20 times more children younger than 5 years die from inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities than violence.[6]
  • Estimated population: 43 million (2018) and is the third-largest country in Africa
  • Water near Sudan: Nile, Northern Interior, Lake Chad, North-East Coast, Lake Turkana, Baraka, and Gash.

Water resources

The Nile river flows through the eastern part of the country and provides a large portion of those living nearby with ample water for drinking and agriculture. Wetlands flanking the Nile cover almost 10% of the country, and support diverse riparian ecosystems.[7] Others living in the more arid western region rely on wells or seasonal wadi to obtain their daily water. These wadi are dry stream beds for large portions of the year, but people are able to access the groundwater that accumulates underneath by digging well holes. Water storage infrastructure is limited throughout the western part of the country, but many local communities have constructed makeshift dams and reservoirs called weirs which can store water for future use and play big parts in stabilizing farming communities. Farmers also utilize hafirs to store rain water during rainy season, but groundwater remains a vital source of water for over 80% of Sudanese people.[7] The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, the largest aquifer in the country, provides most of Sudan's drinking water,[7]

Importance of Water

Water is essential for agriculture, without water there would be no crops, leading to a deficit in food. Also, raising livestock and cattle requires an adequate supply of water. At this moment in time, the exponential population growth, cannot keep up with the production of food. Consequently, there are millions of people who already are starving, mostly in rural areas and areas with little access to water. The sources of drinking water before disinfection are wells, boreholes, and pipelines. In addition to surface water samples, hafirs and local ponds are sources of water. Hafirs are an artificially constructed water catchment basin. Being granted access to safe drinking water is crucial for human health, dignity, and economic prosperity. Water is a basic “human rights including, but not limited to: survival, attaining an adequate standard of living, health, education, and gender equality”.and directly impact diseases and illnesses associated with contaminated drinking water.[8]

Quality

Another concern within Sudan is the quality of the water people have access to. In eastern Sudan, a study was conducted in the cities of Wad Madani and Al Khartoum that revealed 86% of water in public taps was meeting both Sudanese and international quality levels.[9] In Darfur, water scarcity is more prevalent with many people regularly being exposed to drought and famine conditions.[9] Most of the western part of Sudan lacks year round access to quality water, as the wadi are dry for much of the year unless heavy rains fall. Due to instability in much of this part of the county, water quality dramatically decreases when compared to the more water-secure east. The capital of Sudan, Khartoum, will benefit greatly from the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam and looks to be in a much better position with regards to accessing quality sanitary water in the near future. Many of the communities living nearby the border of Chad are exposed to chronic water shortages with no solution in sight until the conflicts are fully resolved.[10]

Water Treatment

United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS), rehabilitated an unused water treatment plant in El Fasher, Darfur’s state capital, installing a chlorination unit ensuring water quality. This unit now produces enough water for 37,500 people a day.[1]

Diseases Caused by Unsanitary Water

Water is essential for human development. Lack of access to safe water is both a cause and symptom of poverty and under-development. Limited access to safe water is a cause of poverty because they are at an economic disadvantage—agriculture and farming. It is hard to farm or for crops to grow there is a constant need for water. All businesses rely on some extent of constant clean water and sanitation. Furthermore, without water supplies, people must leave work earlier in search of water. Besides, the absence of safe, clean water results in morbidity and mortality for both adults and children. Diseases include cholera, dysentery, diarrhea, intestinal worms, bilharzia, and typhoid. There are about 4 billion cases per year.[11][12]

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is recognized as one of the causes of acute hepatitis in adults. Most of the cases are in North and Central Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. There was an HEV outbreak from 2012-2014 in refugee camps bordering South Sudan. More than 10,000 cases of acute hepatitis were diagnosed. HEV is distinguishable by a high prevalence in young adults and increased morbidity and mortality in pregnant women. Fecal-oral route predominant way of transmission so proper water treatment and disposal of human feces are key factors in decreasing transmission. Outbreaks occur frequently during the rainy season due to overflowing drains. The long incubation period (4–10 weeks) makes identification difficult. Environmental analysis of water qualities provides a complete picture of potential transmission sources to help eliminate HEV.[13]

Fecal contamination of drinking water supplies is the main cause of diseases found in water. Proper disposal, waste removal, of fecal matter are rare and often difficult without a proper plumbing infrastructure. Consequently, child stunting rate increases with high levels of open defecation and limited access to improved water sources. Poor sanitation conditions cause about 700,000 children deaths a year and prevent full mental and physical development.[8]

Plans for improvement

An organization called United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS) had done chlorination plant projects in Darfur's capital city of El Fasher with major funding from Japan. The organization rehabilitated a water treatment plant in 2010, then installed a chlorination plant to improve the quality for over 37,500 people.[14] In the city of El Daein, UNOPS had done projects rehabilitating water treatment facilities, helping over 50,000 with access to clean water.[1] Japan has played a huge part by providing funding and expertise in projects to develop rural Sudan and its access to clean water. UNOPS had completed projects that now help over 250,000 people with access to a potable water source.[15]

The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam is already under construction on the Nile river just nine miles upstream of the border of Sudan and has the potential for a multitude of positive effects for the country.[2] More reliable river levels would allow large-scale irrigation and agricultural production that was not possible due to the annual change of the Nile within Sudan being over 8 m[2] Hydro-electric power produced from the dam would exceed the amount needed by Ethiopia, so Sudan will stand to benefit greatly by being able to purchase this extra power. Another benefit from this dam will be creation of jobs, as the infrastructure to distribute the electricity efficiently does not exist yet and will have to be built.

Grassroots organizations have seen success in the Darfur region, an example being the Wadi El Ku Catchment Forum, which was founded to help the 81,000 residents in the Wadi El Ku area provide more water for their crops. The local group consists of 50 representatives from 34 villages in the area, and these men and women decided the construction of weirs would be both cost-efficient and help the most people. Their efforts to build three weirs with funding from the UN provided 9,550 local farmers with better access to water and fertile soils. This project also plans to replant forest cover in the wadi to accommodate pastoral farmers and reverse climate change from previous desertification.[16]

Possible Preventions

The Omniprocessor (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation) which turns human waste into purified portable drinking water by boiling and treating the feces. Not only does it produce water, but it also electricity to power itself. This processor benefits two crucial problems in the developing world: lack of clean water and sanitation problems leading to contaminated water. The reason why western toilets are impractical is that sewage plants require a tremendous amount of energy that countries do not have access to.[17]

Statkraft, a Norwegian energy supplier, plans on building the world’s first osmotic power plant. This water purifier will be the prototype osmotic power plant. Osmotic power is a renewable energy source based on the natural process of osmosis using seawater separating freshwater through the membrane. If the osmotic power plant is brought to Sudan it could potentially provide enough energy for proper plumbing.[18]

The Foul-Water Purifier is a new decontamination system that turns foul water into clean drinking water. The Hans Huber AG’s Safe Drink involves filter out pesticides, viruses, toxic pollutants and chemical contaminants from the surface water. Then, the water is disinfected and oxygenated making it drinkable again. The Huber Safe Drink is currently in four locations in northern Sudan providing water approximately 925,000 gallons of water a day.[18]

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References
  1. "Bringing clean water to the people of Sudan". sd.one.un.org. Archived from the original on 2019-01-02. Retrieved 2018-10-18.
  2. "Why the Nile could see a 'water war'". BBC News. 2018-02-24. Archived from the original on 2018-08-24. Retrieved 2018-10-18.
  3. "Sudan". 2011-09-08. doi:10.18356/bc93e888-en-fr. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  4. "Walk for water: Your 6K vs. theirs". World Vision. 2019-03-05. Retrieved 2019-10-15.
  5. Falkenmark, Malin; Lindh, Gunnar (2019-09-18). Water For a Starving World. doi:10.4324/9780429267260. ISBN 9781000002034.
  6. "Water and sanitation hygiene in South Sudan: What needs to be done to bridge the gap?". www.southsudanmedicaljournal.com. Retrieved 2019-10-15.
  7. "Water Resources in Sudan". Fanack Water. Archived from the original on 2018-12-16. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
  8. "Sudan drinking water safety strategic framework". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 2019-10-15.
  9. "Collective Action for Improved Water Management". sd.one.un.org. Retrieved 2018-10-18.
  10. "Sudan - Conflict in Darfur". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2018-12-16. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
  11. Fagan, G. Honor; Linnane, Suzanne; McGuigan, Kevin G.; Rugumayo, Albert I. (2015-10-15), "Prelims - Water Is Life", Water Is Life, Practical Action Publishing Ltd, pp. i–xii, doi:10.3362/9781780448893.000, ISBN 9781853398896
  12. "Water and Poverty: How Access to Safe Water Reduces Poverty". Lifewater International. 2 November 2018. Retrieved 15 October 2019.
  13. Guerrero-Latorre, Laura; Hundesa, Ayalkibet; Girones, Rosina (July 2016). "Transmission Sources of Waterborne Viruses in South Sudan Refugee Camps: Water". CLEAN - Soil, Air, Water. 44 (7): 775–780. doi:10.1002/clen.201500358.
  14. "Bringing clean water to the people of Sudan - Sudan". ReliefWeb. Archived from the original on 2019-01-02. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
  15. "Sustainable water supply for towns in Darfur". UNOPS. Archived from the original on 2019-01-02. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
  16. "Wadi Partners: Sudan". UN Environment. Archived from the original on 2018-12-16. Retrieved 2018-12-11.
  17. Gates, Bill. "This Ingenious Machine Turns Feces Into Drinking Water". gatesnotes.com. Retrieved 2019-10-15.
  18. "Mitsubishi launches water purifier". Membrane Technology. 2002 (11): 4. November 2002. doi:10.1016/s0958-2118(02)11011-1. ISSN 0958-2118.
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