Soviet (council)

Soviets (singular: soviet; Russian: сове́т, tr. sovjét, Russian pronunciation: [sɐˈvʲet], literally "council" in English) were political organizations and governmental bodies of the late Russian Empire, primarily associated with the Russian Revolution, which gave the name to the latter states of the Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union.

For other uses, see Soviet (disambiguation).

Etymology

"Soviet" is derived from a Russian word signifying council, assembly, advice, harmony, concord,[trans 1] and all ultimately deriving from the Proto-Slavic verbal stem of *vět-iti "to inform", related to Slavic "věst" ("news"), English "wise", the root in "ad-vis-or" (which came to English through French), or the Dutch "weten" ('to know'; cf. "wetenschap" 'science').

The word "sovietnik" means councillor.[1]

A number of organizations in Russian history were called "council" (Russian: сове́т). For example, in Imperial Russia, the State Council, which functioned from 1810 to 1917, was referred to as a Council of Ministers after the revolt of 1905.[1]

Russian Empire
Deputies of the first soviet, 1905.

Workers' councils

According to the official historiography of the Soviet Union, the first workers' council (soviet) formed in May 1905 in Ivanovo (north-east of Moscow) during the 1905 Russian Revolution (Ivanovsky Soviet). However, in his memoirs, the Russian Anarchist Volin claims that he witnessed the beginnings of the St Petersburg Soviet in January 1905. The Russian workers were largely organized at the turn of the 20th century, leading to a government-sponsored trade-union leadership.

In 1905, as the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) increased the strain on Russian industrial production, the workers began to strike and rebel. The soviets represented an autonomous workers' movement, one that broke free from the government's oversight of workers' unions. Soviets sprang up throughout the industrial centers of Russia, usually organizing meetings at the factory level. These soviets disappeared after the revolution of 1905, but re-emerged under socialist leadership during the revolutions of 1917.

Russian Revolution

The popular organizations which came into existence during the Russian Revolution were called "Councils of Workmen's and Soldiers' Deputies." These bodies were supposed to hold things together under the provisional government until the election of a constituent assembly could take place; in a sense, they were vigilance committees designed to guard against counter-revolution. The Petrograd Soviet of 4,000 members was the most important of these, on account of its position in the capital and its influence over the garrison.[1]

At the beginning of the Revolution, these soviets were under control of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, and even the Mensheviks had a larger share of the elected representatives than the Bolsheviks. As World War I continued and the Russians met defeat after defeat, and the provisional government proved inadequate at establishing industrial peace, the Bolsheviks began to grow in support. By degrees, the Bolsheviks dominated with a leadership which demanded "all power to the soviets."[1]

The Bolsheviks promised the workers a government run by workers' councils to overthrow the bourgeoisie's main government body - the Provisional Government. In October 1917, the provisional government was overthrown, giving all power to the Soviets. John Reed, an American eyewitness to the October Revolution, wrote, "Until February 1918 anybody could vote for delegates to the Soviets. Even had the bourgeoisie organised and demanded representation in the Soviets, they would have been given it. For example, during the regime of the Provisional Government there was bourgeois representation in the Petrograd Soviet – a delegate of the Union of Professional Men which comprised doctors, lawyers, teachers, etc."[2]

Similarly, Leon Trotsky wrote in Terrorism and Communism (1920) that "In Petrograd, in November 1917, we also elected a Commune (Town Council) on the basis of the most democratic voting, without limitations for the bourgeoisie. These elections, being boycotted by the bourgeoisie parties, gave us a crushing majority. The democratically elected Council voluntarily submitted to the Petrograd Soviet... the Soviet Government placed no obstacle in the way of the bourgeois parties; and if the Cadets, the SRs and the Mensheviks, who had their press which was openly calling for the overthrow of the Soviet Government, boycotted the elections, it was only because at that time they still hoped soon to make an end of us with the help of armed force... If the Petrograd bourgeoisie had not boycotted the municipal elections, its representatives would have entered the Petrograd Council. They would have remained there up to the first Social Revolutionary and Cadet rising, after which...they would probably have been arrested if they did not leave the Council in good time, as at a certain moment did the bourgeois members of the Paris Commune."[3]

Lenin wrote that the soviets were originally politically open and inclusive entities, writing in The Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade Kautsky (1918) that, "the disenfranchisement of the bourgeoisie is not a necessary and indispensable feature of the dictatorship of the proletariat. And in Russia, the Bolsheviks, who long before October put forward the slogan of proletarian dictatorship, did not say anything in advance about disenfranchising the exploiters. This aspect of the dictatorship did not make its appearance "according to the plan" of any particular party; it emerged of itself in the course of the struggle ... even when the Mensheviks (who compromised with the bourgeoisie) still ruled the Soviets, the bourgeoisie cut themselves off from the Soviets of their own accord, boycotted them, put themselves up in opposition to them and intrigued against them. The Soviets arose without any constitution and existed without one for more than a year (from the spring of 1917 to the summer of 1918). The fury of the bourgeoisie against this independent and omnipotent (because it was all—embracing) organisation of the oppressed; the fight, the unscrupulous, self—seeking and sordid fight, the bourgeoisie waged against the Soviets; and, lastly, the overt participation of the bourgeoisie (from the Cadets to the Right Socialist—Revolutionaries, from Milyukov to Kerensky) in the Kornilov mutiny – all this paved the way for the formal exclusion of the bourgeoisie from the Soviets."[4]

The Bolsheviks and their allies came out with a program called "soviet government." The soviet system was described as "a higher type of state" and "a higher form of democracy" which would "arouse the masses of the exploited toilers to the task of making new history." Furthermore, it offered "to the oppressed toiling masses the opportunity to participate actively in the free construction of a new society". According to Lenin, the author of these quotations, soviet rule "is nothing else than the organized form of the dictatorship of the proletariat." A code of rules governing elections to the soviets was framed in March 1918, but the following classes were disqualified to vote: "Those who employ others for profit; those who live on incomes not derived from their own work – interest on capital, industrial enterprises or landed property; private business men, agents, middlemen; monks and priests of all denominations; ex-employees of the old police services and members of the Romanov dynasty; lunatics and criminals."[1]

With village and factory soviets as a base, there arose a vast pyramid of district, cantonal, county and regional soviets, each with its executive soviet. Over and above these stood the "All-Russian Soviet Congress," which appointed an "All-Russian Central Executive Committee" of not more than 200 members, which in turn chooses the "Soviet of People's Commissaries" — the Ministry. Beginning with a minimum of three and maximum of 50 members for smaller communities, the maximum for town soviets was fixed at 1,000 members. The soviet system was seen as an alternative to parliamentary systems for administering republican governments.[1]

Status Within the Soviet Union

Based on the Bolshevik view of the state, the word soviet extended its meaning to any overarching body that obtained the authority of a group of soviets. In this sense, individual soviets became part of a federal structure - Communist government bodies at local level and republic level[note 1] were called "soviets", and at the top of the hierarchy, the Congress of Soviets became the nominal core of the Union government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), officially formed in December 1922. Successive Soviet Constitutions recognised the leading role of the Communist Party in politics, - the 1936 Constitution deemed it the "leading nucleus of all organisations of workers, whether public or state".[5] The soviets were structured as the instruments through which the Party governed the country. Thus the organs of the Communist Party (the highest being the Central Committee) made decisions on state policy, while the soviets acted as a system for public approval of implementing the Party's programme.

Later, in the USSR, local-government bodies were named soviet (sovet: council) with an adjective indicating the administrative level, customarily abbreviated: gorsovet (gorodskoy sovet: city council), raysovet/raisovet' (rayonny sovet: raion council), selsovet (sel'sky sovet: rural council), possovet (poselkovy sovet: settlement council). In practice deputies in a soviet often worked in standing committees and carried out functions with the help of unpaid volunteers (the aktiv - Russian: актив).[6]

Function within Soviet Union

As outlined in the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, and successively the 1924 Constitution of the Soviet Union and 1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union, the Soviets were the basis of government in the USSR.[7][8] Factory and village Soviets would send delegates to town Soviets, and in turn the town Soviet would send delegates to the regional Soviet, town and regional Soviets elected delegates to the provincial Soviet, provincial Soviets sent delegates to the Soviet of the constituent republic, and the Soviets of the Union Republics sent delegates to the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R.[9] As of 1936, the election of delegates up the pyramid became direct.[10]

Elections of delegates were made by a show of hands in open factory and village meetings, or in meetings of the rank and file of the army. Any candidate was personally known to the electors, and his qualifications could be argued about immediately in front of his face. Delegates once elected were liable to 'recall' should they cease to represent the views of their electorate. Since this electorate was a real entity, always in existence and discussing politics from day to day, it had a live and changing public opinion. Thus the will of his 'constituency' could easily, unmistakably and effectively be brought home to the delegate; and it was equally easy for him to report back to his electors.

— Holme, "The Soviets and Ourselves: Two Commonwealths"

Local constituents within the factory and village soviet would compile a list of what they want the government to do, and the role of the elected delegates was to carry out the given tasks. Unsatisfactory delegates are liable to recall by majority decision of the electorate: in the 30s, fifteen delegates were so recalled within four years in Moscow alone. There were very few full time administrative workers or state functionaries; instead, many citizens would take part in the day-to-day running of the government. In the 1940s, it was estimated that at any given time there were over a million people participating in the running of the Soviets.[11][12][13]

Each Soviet has a variety of committees, parallel to the government departments in the USSR as a whole- public employees aided, advised and ran their relevant committees- for example, teachers would be on education sections, and doctors on healthcare sections:

One major factor making the standing committees a more likely arena for deputy participation in the work of the soviet is their smaller size [...] in 1985 nearly 2 million deputies were members of one or another standing committee - about 80 percent of all deputies. In addition, deputies are assisted in their work by unpaid volunteers (aktiv) with a particular interest or expertise in the issues before the committee.

— Hahn, "Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government"

The Union Republics, Provinces and Town Soviets had jurisdiction to run their own industry, take censuses, employ more doctors, teachers, and nurses, build schools, libraries and hospitals so long as it did not directly conflict with the national policy. More than half of the Union Republic’s income went towards local grants, and local Soviets were largely allowed to determine how their budget was spent.[14][15][16]

Modern Russia

Although English speakers perceive the term as connoting the defunct Soviet Union, the same word is used in Russian for the Upper House (Council or Senate) of the modern Russian Parliament. Its untranslated name is Сове́т Федера́ции (Soviet Federatsii).

Outside Russia

The term soon came to be used outside the former Russian Empire following 1917. The Limerick Soviet was formed in Ireland in 1919.[17] A soviet republic was established in Bavaria on 7 April 1919.[1] In 1920, the Workers' Dreadnought published "A Constitution for British Soviets" in preparation for the launch of the Communist Party (British Section of the Third International).[18] Here the focus was on "household" soviets "[i]n order that mothers and those who are organisers of the family life of the community may be adequately represented."

Germany

In the wake of World War I, the Social Democrats took power in Bavaria, setting up a "People's State" under the leadership of Kurt Eisner, a popular Jewish writer. Eisner, an eccentric and well known figure in Munich, succeeded in carrying out a bloodless coup with a few hundred men on 7 November 1918, occupying the seat of parliament and government, and proclaiming a republic. He was assassinated three months after, whereupon a short-lived soviet republic was established by the Bavarian workers.[19]

On 1 May 1919, the Regular Army, along with local Bavarian Freikorps, overthrew the nascent republic, massacring several hundred persons in the process, including many non-Communist. A Social Democratic government was thereupon restored, however, political power passed to the Bavarian right.[19]

The political turmoil of post-war Bavaria was also the political springboard of Hitler's political career. Hitler, having returned to Munich in late November 1918, detested the soviet state (he elaborated on his aversion to it in his autobiographical work, Mein Kampf, where he also claimed he once narrowly avoided arrest by the state). After the fall of the socialist administration in Bavaria, Hitler began his "first more or less political activity", informing a military commission regarding those involved in the short-lived soviet state. This work might have ensured his future employment in the Munich military as an "educational officer" whose task was combating "dangerous" ideas like socialism, pacifism, and democracy, among the army's ranks (many soldiers had taken part in the German Revolution, in fact it was begun by German sailors).[19]

Translations
  1. Ukrainian: рада (rada); Polish: rada; Belarusian: савет; Uzbek: совет; Kazakh: совет/кеңес; Azerbaijani: совет; Lithuanian: taryba; Moldovan: совиет; Latvian: padome; Kyrgyz: совет; Tajik: шӯравӣ; Armenian: խորհուրդ / սովետ; Turkmen: совет; Estonian: nõukogu
gollark: ?coliru```c#include <stdio.h>#define S2(x) ##x#define S(x) S2(x)#define A2(x, ...) x(x(__VA_ARGS__))#define R2(x) x x#define R4(x) A2(R2, x)#define R8(x) A2(R4, x)#define R16(x) A2(R8, x)#define QUITELONG R16(long)int main(){printf(S(QUITELONG));return 42;}```
gollark: ?coliru```c#include <stdio.h>#define A2(x, ...) x(x(__VA_ARGS__))#define R2(x) x x#define R4(x) A2(R2, x)#define R8(x) A2(R4, x)#define R16(x) A2(R8, x)#define QUITELONG R16(long)int main(){printf(QUITELONG);return 42;}```
gollark: Hmm...
gollark: ?coliru```c#include <stdio.h>#define A2(x, ...) x(x(__VA_ARGS__))#define R2(x) x x#define R4(x) A2(R2, x)#define R8(x) A2(R4, x)#define R16(x) A2(R8, x)#define QUITELONG R16(long)int main(){printf("QUITELONG");return 42;}```
gollark: ?coliru```c#define A2(x, ...) x(x(__VA_ARGS__))#define R2(x) x x#define R4(x) A2(R2, x)#define R8(x) A2(R4, x)#define R16(x) A2(R8, x)#define QUITELONG R16(long)int main(){printf("QUITELONG")return 42;}```

See also

Notes
  1. Earlier, in the Russian SFSR, there were three levels of soviet hierarchy: local, republic, and federal-republic.

References
  1. Klein, Henri F. (1920). "Soviet" . In Rines, George Edwin (ed.). Encyclopedia Americana.
  2. Reed, John. "Soviets in Action". www.marxists.org.
  3. Trotsky, Leon. "Leon Trotsky: Terrorism and Communism (Chapter 5)". www.marxists.org.
  4. Lenin, Vladimir. "PRRK: The Constituent Assembly and the Soviet Republic". www.marxists.org.
  5. "Конституция (Основной закон) Союза Советских Социалистических Республик (утверждена постановлением Чрезвычайного VIII Съезда Советов Союза Советских Социалистических Республик от 5 декабря 1936 г.). Глава Х: Основные права и обязанности граждан" [Constitution (Basic Law) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (confirmed by the decision of the Extraordinary 8th Session of the Soviets of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics of 5 December 1936). Chapter 10: Basic rights and duties of citizens]. Sait Konstitutsii Rossiiskoi Federatsii (in Russian). НПП "Гарант-Сервис". Retrieved 19 December 2015. Статья 126. В соответствии с интересами трудящихся и в целях развития организационной самодеятельности и политической активности народных масс гражданам СССР обеспечивается право объединения в общественные организации: профессиональные союзы, кооперативные объединения, организации молодежи, спортивные и оборонные организации, культурные, технические и научные общества, а наиболее активные и сознательные граждане из рядов рабочего класса и других слоев трудящихся объединяются во Всесоюзную коммунистическую партию (большевиков), являющуюся передовым отрядом трудящихся в их борьбе за укрепление и развитие социалистического строя и представляющую руководящее ядро всех организаций трудящихся, как общественных, так и государственных.
  6. Hahn, Jeffrey W. (1988). Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government. I.B.Tauris. p. 230. ISBN 9781850431039. One major factor making the standing committees a more likely arena for deputy participation in the work of the soviet is their smaller size [...] in 1985 nearly 2 million deputies were members of one or another standing committee - about 80 percent of all deputies. In addition, deputies are assisted in their work by unpaid volunteers (aktiv) with a particular interest or expertise in the issues before the committee.
  7. http://pwerth.faculty.unlv.edu/Const-USSR-1924(abridge).pdf
  8. "Full text of "1918 Soviet Constitution"". archive.org.
  9. Getty, J. Arch (1991). "State and Society Under Stalin: Constitutions and Elections in the 1930s". Slavic Review. 50 (1): 18–35. doi:10.2307/2500596. JSTOR 2500596.
  10. "1936 Constitution of the USSR, TOC". www.departments.bucknell.edu.
  11. "The USSR – the Democracy You Didn't Know About". London Progressive Journal.
  12. Hahn, Jeffrey W. (1988). Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government. Princeton University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv3hh4n4. ISBN 9781400886920. JSTOR j.ctv3hh4n4.
  13. "Thurston, Robert Reassessing the History of Soviet Workers - Opportunities to Criticize and Participate in Decision-Making". Google Docs.
  14. "The_Soviets_and_Ourselves__Two_Commonwealths_1.pdf". Google Docs.
  15. Timasheff, N. S. (1950). "The Soviet Concept of Democracy". The Review of Politics. 12 (4): 506–518. doi:10.1017/S0034670500047173. JSTOR 1404887.
  16. file:///home/chronos/u-414c9121c1eaeffe35688cda3562207ee6e3d5bf/MyFiles/Downloads/Pat%20Sloan%20-%20Soviet%20Democracy-Victor%20Gollancz%20(1937).pdf
  17. "1919 Limerick Soviet | Robert Nielsen". Robertnielsen21.wordpress.com. 6 October 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
  18. "A Constitution for British Soviets," Workers' Dreadnought, Vol VII No.13 19 June 1919
  19. William L., Shirer (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich - A History of Nazi Germany. Simon & Schuster. pp. 30–32.

Further reading
  • Edward Acton, Rethinking the Russian Revolution (1990), Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-7131-6530-8.
  • Tony Cliff, Lenin: All Power to the Soviets (1976), Pluto Press.
  • Voline, The Unknown Revolution, Black Rose Books.
  • Rex A. Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917 (2005), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-84155-0.
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