Palythoa

Palythoa
	Palythoa grandis
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Cnidaria
Class:	Anthozoa
Order:	Zoantharia
Family:	Sphenopidae
Genus:	Palythoa; Lamouroux, 1816
Synonyms
	Protopalythoa Verrill, 1900;

Palythoa is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.[1][2]

Description

The polyps of Palythoa are partially embedded in an encrusting mat of tissue (coenenchyme) covering the substrate on which the colony grows. The individual polyps have flattened oral discs surrounded by a fringe of tentacles. The tentacles' shape and size can vary considerably between species, and even between colonies of the same species. Their colors are also highly variable, with relatively dull shades like cream, coffee, white, brown, or yellow, being the most common. Fluorescent colored colonies also exist, but these are more rare.[3][4]

Palytoxin

Palytoxin is a highly toxic fatty alcohol produced by many species of Palythoa, and is also found in other corals and certain marine invertebrates. The substance was first isolated from the seaweed-like "limu-make-o-Hana" ("Seaweed of Death from Hana") in 1971 in Hawaii. Scientific investigation of the seaweed found it to be a colonial cnidarian, which was classified as a zoanthid and named Palythoa toxica. Small quantities of palytoxin can be fatal should it be ingested or inhaled.

The presence of this toxin is of significance to aquarists who keep reef aquariums, as Palythoa and related zoanthids are commonly kept as decorative specimens in marine aquaria. Aquarists have reported symptoms consistent with palytoxin poisoning prior to having exposure to zoanthids suspected to contain the toxin. One report involved an aquarist being accidentally poisoned through skin injuries after handling zoanthids[5] Another report involved an aquarium hobbyist in Virginia who experienced a severe respiratory reaction after trying to eradicate colonies of brown zoanthids (suspected to be Palythoa) from rocks in their aquarium.[6] A 2010 study found that a single specimen of Palythoa from a sample of fifteen colonies purchased from three aquarium stores in the Washington D.C. area contained high levels of palytoxin, indicating that toxic individuals are present in the captive population.[7]

While poisoning events have occurred, they are exceedingly rare, and many reef hobbyists have kept Palythoa without any adverse reactions. However, it is generally recommended to always wear appropriate protective gloves and goggles when reaching into aquaria and handling animals which are suspected to be toxic.[8]

Taxonomy and systematics

The genus Protopalythoa was once thought to be distinct from the genus Palythoa but is now considered to be a synonym.[1]

Species

The following species are recognized in the genus Palythoa:

Palythoa aggregata Lesson, 1830
Palythoa anneae Carlgren, 1938
Palythoa anthoplax Pax & Müller, 1957¹
Palythoa arenacea Heller, 1868
Palythoa argus Ehrenberg, 1834
Palythoa aspera Pax, 1909
Palythoa atogrisea Pax, 1924
Palythoa australiae Carlgren, 1937¹
Palythoa australiensis Carlgren, 1950
Palythoa bertholeti Gray, 1867
Palythoa brasiliensis Heider, 1899
Palythoa braunsi Pax, 1924
Palythoa brochi Pax, 1924
Palythoa buitendijkl Pax, 1924
Palythoa caesia Dana, 1846
Palythoa calcaria Muller, 1883
Palythoa calcigena Pax, 1924
Palythoa calycina Pax, 1909
Palythoa canalifera Pax, 1908
Palythoa canariensis Haddon & Duerden, 1896
Palythoa cancrisocia Martens, 1876
Palythoa capensis Haddon & Duerden, 1896¹
Palythoa caracasiana Pax, 1924
Palythoa caribaeorum (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
Palythoa ceresina Pax & Muller, 1956
Palythoa chlorostoma Pax & Muller, 1956
Palythoa cingulata Milne Edwards, 1857
Palythoa clavata (Duchassaing, 1850)
Palythoa complanata Carlgren, 1951¹
Palythoa congoensis Pax, 1952
Palythoa dartevellei Pax, 1952
Palythoa densa Carlgren, 1954¹
Palythoa denudata Dana, 1846
Palythoa dura Carlgren, 1920
Palythoa durbanensis Carlgren, 1938¹
Palythoa dysancrita Pax & Muller, 1956
Palythoa eremita Pax, 1920
Palythoa fatua Schultze, 1867
Palythoa flavoviridis Ehrenberg, 1834
Palythoa fuliginosa Dana, 1846
Palythoa fusca (Duerden, 1898)
Palythoa glareola (Lesueur, 1817)
Palythoa glutinosa Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864
Palythoa grandiflora (Verrill, 1900)
Palythoa grandis (Verrill, 1900)
Palythoa gregorii Haddon & Duerden, 1896
Palythoa gridellii Pax & Muller, 1956
Palythoa guangdongensis Zunan, 1998¹
Palythoa guinensis von Koch, 1886¹
Palythoa haddoni Carlgren, 1937¹
Palythoa halidosis Pax, 1952
Palythoa hartmeyeri Pax, 1910
Palythoa heideri Carlgren, 1954¹
Palythoa heilprini (Verrill, 1900)
Palythoa heliodiscus (Ryland & Lancaster, 2003)
Palythoa horstii Pax, 1924
Palythoa howesii Haddon & Shackleton, 1891¹
Palythoa hypopelia Pax, 1909
Palythoa ignota Carlgren, 1951
Palythoa incerta Carlgren, 1900
Palythoa insignis Carlgren, 1951
Palythoa irregularis Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860
Palythoa isolata Verrill, 1907
Palythoa javanica Pax, 1924
Palythoa kochii Haddon & Shackleton, 1891
Palythoa leseuri Klunzinger, 1877
Palythoa leucochiton Pax & Muller, 1956
Palythoa liscia Haddon & Duerden, 1896
Palythoa mammillosa (Ellis & Solander, 1786)
Palythoa mizigama Irei, Sinniger & Reimer, 2015
Palythoa monodi Pax & Muller, 1956
Palythoa multisulcata Carlgren, 1900¹
Palythoa mutuki (Haddon & Shackleton, 1891)
Palythoa natalensis Carlgren, 1938
Palythoa nelliae Pax, 1935
Palythoa nigricans McMurrich, 1898
Palythoa oorti Pax, 1924
Palythoa psammophilia Walsh & Bowers, 1971
Palythoa senegalensis Pax & Muller, 1956
Palythoa senegambiensis Carter, 1882
Palythoa shackletoni Carlgren, 1937
Palythoa sinensis Zunan, 1998¹
Palythoa singaporensis Pax & Müller, 1956¹
Palythoa spongiosa Andres, 1883
Palythoa stephensoni Carlgren, 1937¹
Palythoa texaensis Carlgren & Hedgpeth, 1952
Palythoa titanophila Pax & Müller, 1957¹
Palythoa toxica Walsh & Bowers, 1971
Palythoa tropica Carlgren, 1900
Palythoa tuberculosa (Esper, 1791)
Palythoa umbrosa Irei, Sinniger & Reimer, 2015
Palythoa variabilis (Duerden, 1898)
Palythoa vestitus (Verrill, 1928)
Palythoa wilsmoorei Wilsmore¹
Palythoa xishaensis Zunan, 1998¹
Palythoa yongei Carlgren, 1937¹
Palythoa zanzibarica Carlgren¹

¹Indicates Species Unreviewed: has not been verified by a taxonomic editor

Taxon inquirendum:

Palythoa anduzii (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
Palythoa auricula (Lesueur, 1817)
Palythoa brevis Andres, 1883
Palythoa casigneta Walsh, 1967
Palythoa distans (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1866)
Palythoa dubiae Walsh, 1967
Palythoa eupaguri Marion, 1882
Palythoa fulva Walsh, 1967
Palythoa fulva (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
Palythoa gigantea Cubit & Williams, 1983
Palythoa glomerata Marion, 1882
Palythoa lutea (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
Palythoa mcmurrichi (Haddon & Shackleton, 1891)
Palythoa olivascens Brandt, 1835
Palythoa plana (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
Palythoa vanikorensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
Palythoa viridifusca (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
Palythoa viridis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)

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References

Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2014. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed at http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Palythoa/classification/
"Moon Polyps". Animal-World. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
Sprung, Julian. "Aquarium Invertebrates: Zoanthids: Polyps As Cute As A Button". Advanced Aquarist. Pomacanthus Publications, LLC. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
Katrin Hoffmann, Maren Hermanns-Clausen, Claus Buhl, Markus W. Büchler, Peter Schemmer, Dietrich Mebs and Silke Kauferstein (2008) A case of palytoxin poisoning due to contact with zoanthid corals through a skin injury. Toxicon 51, no. 8: 1535-1537.
Longo-White, Adrienne (7 April 2011). "Palythoa Toxica Poisoning - One Reefkeeper's Personal Experience With Palytoxin Poisoning". Advanced Aquarist. Pomacanthus Publications, LLC. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
Deeds JR, Handy SM, White KD, Reimer JD (2011) Palytoxin Found in Palythoa sp. Zoanthids (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia) Sold in the Home Aquarium Trade. PLoS ONE 6(4): e18235. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018235
Nicholas Violand Aquarium Science: Palytoxin and You, Tropical Fish Hobbyist Magazine

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[:0-1] Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27

[2] Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2014. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed at http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Palythoa/classification/

[3] "Moon Polyps". Animal-World. Retrieved 4 December 2014.

[4] Sprung, Julian. "Aquarium Invertebrates: Zoanthids: Polyps As Cute As A Button". Advanced Aquarist. Pomacanthus Publications, LLC. Retrieved 4 December 2014.

[5] Katrin Hoffmann, Maren Hermanns-Clausen, Claus Buhl, Markus W. Büchler, Peter Schemmer, Dietrich Mebs and Silke Kauferstein (2008) A case of palytoxin poisoning due to contact with zoanthid corals through a skin injury. Toxicon 51, no. 8: 1535-1537.

[6] Longo-White, Adrienne (7 April 2011). "Palythoa Toxica Poisoning - One Reefkeeper's Personal Experience With Palytoxin Poisoning". Advanced Aquarist. Pomacanthus Publications, LLC. Retrieved 2 April 2015.

[7] Deeds JR, Handy SM, White KD, Reimer JD (2011) Palytoxin Found in Palythoa sp. Zoanthids (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia) Sold in the Home Aquarium Trade. PLoS ONE 6(4): e18235. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018235

[8] Nicholas Violand Aquarium Science: Palytoxin and You, Tropical Fish Hobbyist Magazine