Erysimum crepidifolium

Erysimum crepidifolium, the pale wallflower, is a plant species in the crucifer family, Brassicaceae. It is a member of the genus Erysimum, which includes between 150 and 350 species in the Northern Hemisphere.[1]

Erysimum crepidifolium
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Brassicales
Family: Brassicaceae
Genus: Erysimum
Species:
E. crepidifolium
Binomial name
Erysimum crepidifolium

Description

Erysimum crepidifolium is an annual to short-lived perennial herbaceous plant that has upright stems, reaching a height of up to 60 cm. The leaves are hirsute, with margins ranging from dentate to entire.

Flowering occurs primarily from April until July. More rarely, E. crepidifolium plants also produce flowers in the fall.The odorless flowers are relatively large, reaching lengths of 9 to 15 mm. The four petals have a pale yellow color. There are six anthers. The 20 to 70 mm seed pods are gray-green, four-sided with rounded corners, and have 3 to 5 mm stems.

The species has a 2n = 14 chromosome number.[2]

Similar species

Erysimum crepidifolium is most easily confused with Erysimum hieraciifolium or Erysimum marschallianum. The latter is differentiated primarily by the shape of the trichomes.

Occurrence

Erysimum crepidifolium grows in dry meadows, preferring warm, rocky soils.[2] The species occurs naturally from the Balkans and Italy[3] to southern and central Germany. However, it is uncommon in Germany, where it is found most frequently in the middle Saale and Nahe river valleys.[4][5] Other reported sites are in northern Bavaria and southwestern Germany. It is not native in Switzerland[6] or Austria.[7]

Chemical toxicity

Like most members of the genus Erysimum, E. crepidifolium contains both cardiac glycosides (cardenolides),[8][9][10] and glucosinolates.[11]

All parts of E. crepidifolium are toxic due to their cardenolide content. There are at least 20 different cardenolides in the seeds, making up ~3.5% of the total mass. Among these, the most common are erysimoside (~2.3%) and its deglycosylated form helveticoside (0.5–1.2%).[8][9] The highest concentrations of erysimoside and helveticoside are found during ripening and in drying seeds.[12] Among 48 tested Erysimum species, E. crepidifolium had the highest cardenolide content in the leaves, at least three-fold higher than any of the other species.[13]

Toxicity in humans has not been reported, though mass die-offs of geese are known. Consumption of E. crepidifolium by geese leads to muscle paralysis from which the animals eventually die (hence the German common name "Gänsesterbe“, or geese death, for this species). Rabbits are also considered susceptible, but chickens are reportedly resistant to E. crepidifolium toxicity.[12][14]

Molecular biology

Due to its close phylogenetic relationship with the well-studied model plant species Arabidopsis thaliana, E. crepidifolium has been proposed as a suitable system for investigating the cardenolide biosynthetic pathway.[15] Progesterone 5-beta-reductase, which was initially proposed as an enzyme of cardenolide biosynthesis in Digitalis, also has been cloned from E. crepidifolium.[15] However, the natural substrate of this E. crepidifolium enzyme has not yet been identified. 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases represent another enzyme class that is predicted to be involved in cardenolide biosynthesis. Comparison to A. thaliana genes identified three predicted 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases in E. crepidifolium (EcHSD1, EcHSD2, and EcHSD3).[16] In vitro assays showed that all three enzymes catalyze the dehydrogenation of pregnenolone and the 3-reduction of 5-alpha/beta-pregnane-3,20-dione. Whereas EcHSD1 expression was not induced by tested stress conditions, EcHSD2 expression was upregulated by osmotic stress, and EcHSD3 expression was upregulated by both osmotic stress and treatment with methyl jasmonate, an endogenous elicitor of chemical defenses in many plant species.[17]

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References
  1. Moazzeni, Hamid; Zarre, Shahin; Pfeil, Bernard E.; Bertrand, Yann J. K.; German, Dmitry A.; Al-Shehbaz, Ihsan A.; Mummenhoff, Klaus; Oxelman, Bengt (2014). "Phylogenetic perspectives on diversification and character evolution in the species-rich genusErysimum(Erysimeae; Brassicaceae) based on a densely sampled ITS approach". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 175 (4): 497–522. doi:10.1111/boj.12184. ISSN 0024-4074.
  2. Erich Oberdorfer: Pflanzensoziologische Exkursionsflora für Deutschland und angrenzende Gebiete. 8. Auflage. Stuttgart, Verlag Eugen Ulmer, 2001. ISBN 3-8001-3131-5
  3. Polatschek, Adolf (1974). "Systematisch-nomenklatorische Vorarbeit zur Gattung Erysimum in Italien". Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien. 78: 171–182. ISSN 0083-6133. JSTOR 41769758.
  4. "Verbreitungskarten der Farn- und Blütenpflanzen Deutschlands". floraweb.de. Retrieved 2019-06-29.
  5. Bildatlas der Farn- und Blütenpflanzen Deutschlands. Haeupler, Henning., Muer, Thomas., Dahmen, Ralf. Stuttgart: Ulmer. 2000. ISBN 3800133644. OCLC 237398981.CS1 maint: others (link)
  6. Erysimum crepidifolium. In: Info Flora (Das nationale Daten- und Informationszentrum der Schweizer Flora). Archived 2013-01-20 at the Wayback Machine
  7. Exkursionsflora von Österreich : Bestimmungsbuch für alle in Österreich wildwachsenden sowie die wichtigsten kultivierten Gefässpflanzen (Farnpflanzen und Samenpflanzen) mit Angaben über ihre Ökologie und Verbreitung. Adler, Wolfgang., Fischer, Manfred A. Stuttgart: E. Ulmer. 1994. ISBN 3800134616. OCLC 31473422.CS1 maint: others (link)
  8. Makarevich, I. F.; Klimenko, O. I.; Kolesnikov, D. G. (1974). "Cardiac glycosides of Erysimum crepidifolium". Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 10 (5): 619–622. doi:10.1007/bf00567853. ISSN 0009-3130.
  9. Nagata, W.; Tamm, Ch; Reichstein, T. (1957). "Die Glykoside von Erysimum crepidifolium H. G. L. Reichenbach. Glykoside und Aglykone 169. Mitteilung". Helvetica Chimica Acta (in German). 40 (1): 41–61. doi:10.1002/hlca.19570400105. ISSN 1522-2675.
  10. Makarevich, I. F.; Zhernoklev, K. V.; Slyusarskaya, T. V.; Yarmolenko, G. N. (1994). "Cardenolide-containing plants of the family Cruciferae". Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 30 (3): 275–289. doi:10.1007/bf00629957. ISSN 0009-3130.
  11. Fahey, Jed W.; Zalcmann, Amy T.; Talalay, Paul (2001). "ChemInform Abstract: The Chemical Diversity and Distribution of Glucosinolates and Isothiocyanates Among Plants". ChemInform. 32 (10): no. doi:10.1002/chin.200110286. ISSN 0931-7597.
  12. Roth, Lutz. (1994). Giftpflanzen, Pflanzengifte : Giftpflanzen von A-Z : Notfallhilfe : Vorkommen, Wirkung, Therapie : allergische und phototoxische Reaktionen. Ecomed. ISBN 3609648104. OCLC 891791701.
  13. Züst, Tobias; Strickler, Susan R; Powell, Adrian F; Mabry, Makenzie E; An, Hong; Mirzaei, Mahdieh; York, Thomas; Holland, Cynthia K; Kumar, Pavan; Erb, Matthias; Petschenka, Georg; Gómez, José-María; Perfectti, Francsco; Müller, Caroline; Pires, J Chris; Mueller, Lukas; Jander, Georg (2020-04-07). "Independent evolution of ancestral and novel defenses in a genus of toxic plants (Erysimum, Brassicaceae)". eLife. 9: e51712. doi:10.7554/eLife.51712. ISSN 2050-084X. PMC 7180059. PMID 32252891.
  14. Bleicher Schöterich (Erysimum crepidifolium). In: giftpflanzen.com.
  15. Munkert, Jennifer; Bauer, Peter; Burda, Edyta; Müller-Uri, Frieder; Kreis, Wolfgang (2011). "Progesterone 5β-reductase of Erysimum crepidifolium: cDNA cloning, expression in Escherichia coli, and reduction of enones with the recombinant protein". Phytochemistry. 72 (14–15): 1710–1717. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2011.06.007. PMID 21767854.
  16. Munkert, Jennifer; Ernst, Mona; Müller-Uri, Frieder; Kreis, Wolfgang (2014). "Identification and stress-induced expression of three 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from Erysimum crepidifolium Rchb. and their putative role in cardenolide biosynthesis". Phytochemistry. 100: 26–33. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2014.01.006. ISSN 0031-9422. PMID 24512841.
  17. Howe, Gregg A.; Jander, Georg (2008). "Plant Immunity to Insect Herbivores". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 59 (1): 41–66. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092825. ISSN 1543-5008. PMID 18031220.
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