East African drug trade

The East African drug trade is the sale and trafficking of illegal narcotics centered in East Africa. The main drugs involved are heroin, marijuana, cocaine, and methamphetamine. In the last few decades, various countries in East Africa have become major ports of entry in the international drug trade; illegal substances are transported there from Asia before they are smuggled into Europe and the United States.[1] Little attention is drawn to these activities, partly because the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime lists only a small percentage of seizures of illicit drugs from the region.[1] The United Nations, East African governments, and scholars agree that the low number of recorded seizures are a symptom of the incapability of regional law enforcement, and an inability to evaluate and understand the illegal drug trade.[2] Despite the lack of records of the illegal drug trade in East Africa, there are signs that East Africa is growing as a port of entry for illegal drugs and a channel to transfer drugs into Europe and the United States . For instance, the Journal of International Affairs stated in 2012, "The UN office on drugs and crime reported a four-fold increase in cocaine seizures in East Africa in 2009–10 from 2005."[2]

Background and history

Due to its history and geography, East Africa is an ideal port of entry for the transportation of drugs from Asia. Historical trade routes through the Indian Ocean to Asia and through sub-Saharan Africa have facilitated the flow of legal goods for many years.[3] In the 1970s, however, due to the negative effects of the African debt crisis and associated structural adjustment programs, historically legitimate routes of commerce increasingly became conduits of illicit substances, where illegal substances could flow quickly without much interference.[3]

The sociopolitical environment of many countries in East Africa has encouraged the illegal drug trade. Weak law enforcement operations throughout the region are unequipped to prevent smuggling. Corruption has encouraged lucrative illegal operations such as the illicit drug market: officials can be bribed to ignore criminal activities.[3] Poverty is rampant, contributing to the weakness of the state.

Illegal drug trafficking in East Africa can be traced back to the mid-1980s, when drug traffickers started using East African countries as their transit sites.[4] The drug trade in East Africa was originally organized and managed by Nigerian crime organizations. In more recent years, criminal organizations from Kenya and Tanzania have also begun to play major roles.[4]

Initially, the illegal drug trade through East Africa overwhelmingly traded just two drugs: marijuana and brown sugar heroin. The latter was a type of heroin that was heated into vapor and inhaled, or combined with marijuana into a joint to be smoked.[3] Since brown sugar heroin was administered without a needle, its status as a public health risk was downplayed. Drugs in the early East African drug trade were already being smuggled into Western countries and were present in tourist hubs throughout East Africa.

In the late 1990s, brown sugar heroin was replaced in the global drug trade by a new type of heroin.[5] White crest heroin, also known as white powdered heroin, was significantly more potent than other forms of heroin and injectable. Unlike brown sugar heroin, it did not require a complex heating process and was therefore easy to use. Starting in the early 2000s, white crest heroin became very common in East Africa itself for both domestic use and international trafficking, especially in Kenya and Tanzania.[3]

The domestic use and smuggling of marijuana and white crest heroin continued into the 2000s. Methamphetamines also became a common illicit drug soon; the first seizure of them was in 2008. There is a lack of data and scholarly research that covers methamphetamines in East Africa, although a growing number of seizures since the first have been recorded.[4] Cocaine is another drug that has become prevalent in the East African drug trade more recently.

Supply

East Africa produces very little to none of the drugs found in the region except marijuana. It is an attractive place for drug smuggling because there is poor border control at ports of entry.[1] The region's two main drug suppliers, Afghanistan and Southeast Asia, are also the two largest suppliers of illicit drugs in the world. In particular, Afghanistan accounts for two-thirds of the production of heroin globally.[6] Heroin from Afghanistan that is headed toward East Africa is transported through Pakistan to be shipped through the Indian Ocean to East Africa. The infamous Golden Triangle of Southeast Asia, covering land in Thailand, Myanmar, and Laos, is another major producer and exporter of marijuana and heroin to East Africa.

Demand

The demand that fuels the East African drug trade is comes from both international and domestic sources. Historically, demand came predominantly from Western countries, but in recent years East African countries have established themselves as consumers of illicit drugs. Middlemen countries like Turkey, which buy East African drugs and resell them to the West, also contribute to high demand.[7] The origin of Western demand comes from centers of tourism that were developed before the 1980s.[5] Coastal resorts in East Africa saw an influx of European, South African, and American tourists, who sparked demand for marijuana and heroin in the region. Beginning in the 1980s, the war on drugs in the United States greatly strengthened East Africa as a piece of the international drug trade because competing drug smuggling operations in Central and South America were closed or significantly impeded.

Ports of entry

Many drugs are sent directly to port cities. From there, they are repackaged and shipped across East Africa through air and sea.[8] Tanzania, in particular, is a major hub; authorities captured major drug hauls there in 2009 and 2011.[9] In Kenya, the coastal city Mombasa is a historical hub for drug smuggling. In recent years, it has seen a further rise in activity in the trading of drugs like marijuana, cocaine, and stimulants.[10] Mozambique has recently become a center in the drug smuggling scene as well.

In addition to seaports, airports allow for the large-scale transportation of drugs. The Kenyan city Nairobi and the Ethiopian city Addis Ababa have become key points of entry for illegal drugs on the continent that are smuggled through air transport.[11]

Because corruption among customs officials lowers barriers that interfere with drug trafficking, airports and seaports are the primary ports of entry for drugs. In Tanzania, infrastructure projects have provided new entry points for drugs and contributed to higher drug usage in cosmopolitan areas.[12]

Types of drugs

A variety of drugs are trafficked through East Africa. The most popular exports are heroin, marijuana, cocaine, and methamphetamine.

Heroin

Since 2006, heroin usage in Africa has increased faster than on any other continent.[13] As of 2017, Africa is currently experiencing its highest increase in drug use, further increasing its demand for heroin.[14] In terms of consumption, East Africans receive about 9% of the heroin trade globally.[15]

Marijuana

Marijuana was first introduced in East Africa during the Middle Ages by Muslim traders from Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula.[16] Across the continent, marijuana is in the process of becoming legalized for medicinal purposes. Malawi is as a major producer of the drug; its government is currently allowing trial productions of high-quality strains of cannabis.[17] The government of Malawi plans to eventually legalize marijuana as the first government in East Africa to do so. However, illicit cultivation of marijuana is still common throughout East Africa because the growth of these crops allows farmers who are facing financial hardship to pursue new economic opportunities.[18]

Cocaine

Cocaine is another drug emerging on the continent. While most of the cocaine trade comes from North Africa, cocaine is a growing presence in East Africa, although the region is far from conventional cocaine smuggling routes.[19] Starting in 2004, there have been numerous high-profile seizures in East Africa.[20] Cocaine seizures have increased by four times from 2005 to 2009–10.[2] Much demand for cocaine comes from the emerging middle class. Many East African governments are worried about the prevalence of cocaine.[21]

Methamphetamine

Methamphetamine has taken over the global drug market in recent decades. It can have devastating effects on communities of all economic situations because almost anyone can afford it. While authorities in East Africa have not discovered any operations to manufacture methamphetamine, they have reported minor confiscations, wherein the methamphetamine is usually in transit to Asia.[20]

Effects

Scholarly research regarding the effects of the drug trade on the countries and populations of East Africa is uncommon but has determined that the impacts of the East African drug trade are widespread. African police agencies have few resources and little capacity to record crime statistics; when they do, they often do not differentiate between conventional and transnational criminal activity. Much of the scholarship that discusses the effects of the East African drug trade is derived from a small amount of qualitative data, and case studies that lack quantitative data to substantiate their claims.[2]

Corruption

The illegal drug trade is an extremely lucrative venture that encourages corruption in government. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the global heroin market produced US$61 billion in revenue in 2009.[4] Corruption thrives in impoverished environments with weak states and incapable law enforcement. The International Journal of Drug Policy finds "extensive evidence of 'drug-corruption' among government officials and employees from numerous countries" throughout Africa, including many countries in East Africa.[22]

Corruption relating to drugs impacts East Africa's development. It allows for the increased flow of drugs throughout East Africa and handicaps counter-narcotic efforts, ultimately strengthening the organizational structures of drug trafficking. Research suggests that corruption caused by the drug trade damages the state process of development. Scholars argue in the International Journal of Drug Policy that "the drug trade impedes economic growth because this illegal income is rarely transformed into productive capital investments which are necessary for long-term and sustained economic expansion."[22] Corruption undermines the state's capacity to develop robust institutions that are essential for establishing the rule of law and strong economies. Moreover, the Journal of International Affairs reports that Kenya "is well on its way to being captured ... by organized crime groups".[2]

Terrorism

Profits from the illegal drug trade in East Africa are being used to finance terrorist organizations and other insurgent movements; however, the degree to which said groups are funded by the drug trade is unknown. The United States Drug Enforcement Administration claims that a large portion of the organizations that are labeled as foreign terrorist organizations have direct ties to the illicit drug trade.[2] The international nature of the drug trade means that those arrested in East Africa can be prosecuted by the US and other Western countries if a link is found with terrorist groups, even if the arrested people are not transporting the drugs to Western countries.[7]

Additionally, many groups incriminated in the drug smuggling industry have been tied to terrorist groups in East Africa, most notably Al-Shabaab.[7] Other groups related to Al-Shabaab are prominent, such as the Muslim Youth Center of Kenya, which recruits young foreigners to fight for Al-Shabaab.[23] Such terrorist groups have assisted in the smuggling of drugs as well as personnel both into East Africa and between African countries. The drugs fund these terrorist groups and allow them to continue operations. In addition to drugs, these groups smuggle black market sugar and resources such as charcoal.[7]

Youth

Africa is the most youthful continent in the world. While most of the world is experiencing an aging population, sixty percent of Africans are under the age of 25.[24] Demand for drugs from youth has caused a proliferation of access to illegal drugs in East Africa. The International Journal of Drug Policy says that "according to World Bank data, illicit drug users in developing countries 'typically fall within the age group of 15–44, although most are in their mid-twenties.'"[22] Case studies have produced evidence to reaffirm the concern that links the proliferation of illegal drugs and the large youthful population. Also, the same journal describes that researchers working in the coastal and interior regions of Tanzania have found that "excluding cannabis, heroin was the most commonly used drug, and was concentrated among young men of working age."[12] The use of drugs in youthful populations may lead to a decrease in productivity, and public health crises.

HIV

Injecting drugs with needles is credited with the rise of HIV in East African countries. In particular, in the countries of Mozambique, Tanzania, Madagascar, and Kenya, those who partake in drugs are more likely to have HIV. Drug users account for 2% of new HIV infections as of 2014.[25] Consumers of drugs are more likely to contract HIV before the age of 25 compared to the general population, and statistics point toward a higher rate of HIV infections compared to the general population.[25]

The HIV epidemic has struck some countries harder than others; Kenya has been hit the hardest. Drug use among sex workers is a major cause of the issue. Sex workers inject drugs before or after intercourse. Due to lack of funds, they are forced to use contaminated needles. Combined with a lack of knowledge about the disease itself, contamination through injection has led to a spike in HIV rates among sex workers, which in turn has led to a proliferation of the disease across the country.[26] Heroin is a particularly notable cause of HIV transmission through injection. In the 21st century, injection became the most popular method of inserting heroin into the body. The International Journal of Drug Policy states that "drug use has been a major factor in the spread of HIV in developing countries, often as a result of syringe sharing and re-use."[22] Few people are aware of the risks involved with the use and reuse of syringes. In addition, in the case of Kenya, 20% of the general population is estimated to be HIV-positive.[5] The combination of the prevalence of HIV, the injection of drugs, and the lack of healthcare and awareness that exists around these dangerous practices[12] suggest a hazardous environment that could contribute to a public health crisis. Researchers in Tanzania and Kenya found that the HIV rate among a sample of heroin users was more than 50%, which is well over the 13% average.[5]

Currently, many countries in Africa, such as Tanzania and Mauritius, are developing methadone programs to stem the tide of drug injections, which are a major cause of HIV.[27] These programs forgo abstinence by offering medicine to alleviate the symptoms of withdrawal. Thousands are now enrolling in these programs in order to overcome addiction, and avoid the threat of HIV infection due to injection by contaminated needles.

References

1. "Drug Trafficking Patterns to and from Eastern Africa". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
2. Bybee, Ashley (2012). "THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY EXPANSION OF THE TRANSNATIONAL DRUG TRADE IN AFRICA". Journal of International Affairs. 66 (1): 69–84. JSTOR 24388252.
3. Syvertsen, Jennifer (2016). "An ethnographic exploration of drug markets in Kisumu, Kenya". International Journal of Drug Policy. 30: 82–90. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.01.001. PMC 4845648. PMID 26838470.
4. Mbwambo, Jessie (2012). "Drug trafficking, use, and HIV risk: The need for comprehensive interventions". Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS. 9 (3): 154–159. doi:10.1080/17290376.2012.743832. PMID 23237070.
5. Beckerleg, Susan (2005). "The rise of injecting drug use in East Africa: a case study from Kenya". Harm Reduction Journal. 2: 12. doi:10.1186/1477-7517-2-12. PMC 1236949. PMID 16122382.
6. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. "UN Market Analysis of Plant-Based Drugs 2016" (PDF).
7. "Drug Trafficking Routes Proliferate through Indian Ocean" (PDF).
8. "The Heroin Coast" (PDF).
9. https://enact-africa.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/2018-07-02-research-paper-heroin-coast.pdf
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11. "Illicit Trafficking and Eastern Africa". www.unodc.org.
12. Tiberio, Jenny (2018). "Context and characteristics of illicit drug use in coastal and interior Tanzania". International Journal of Drug Policy. 51: 20–26. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.09.012. PMID 29156310.
13. "Africa is heroin's new highway to the West". The Economist. Jan 31, 2019.
14. Haysom, Simone; Gastrow, Peter; Shaw, Mark (June 2018). "The Heroin Coast: A Political Economy along the Eastern African Seaboard" (PDF). Enact. 4.
15. Ane, Maria-Goretti. "Eastern Africa makes strides towards balanced drug policies".
16. Du Toit, Brian (1976). "Man and Cannabis in Africa: A Study of Diffusion". African Economic History. 1 (1): 17–35. JSTOR 4617576.
17. Monks, Kieron (May 7, 2018). "Africa's weed race? Zimbabwe second country to legalize medicinal marijuana". www.cnn.com.
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19. "Cocaine and Heroin". www.europol.europa.eu.
20. Wright, Joanna (September 2013). "Transnational Organized Crime in Eastern Africa" (PDF). www.unodc.org.
21. "An emerging drug market". The Economist. 2016-04-14. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2019-05-15.
22. Singer, Merrill (2008). "Drugs and development: The global impact of drug use and trafficking on social and economic development". International Journal of Drug Policy. 19 (6): 467–478. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2006.12.007. PMID 19038724.
23. Anzalone, Christopher (October 2012). "Kenya's Muslim Youth Center and Al-Shabab's East African Recruitment". Combating Terrorism Center Sentinel. 5 – via ctc.usma.edu.
24. Gates, Bill. "The world's youngest continent".
25. "HIV and AIDS in East and Southern Africa". Avert.org. 2015-07-20.
26. Mburu, Gitau; et al. (Feb 2019). ""HIV Risk Behaviors among Women Who Inject Drugs in Coastal Kenya: Findings from Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data."". Harm Reduction Journal. 16: 1–15. doi:10.1186/s12954-019-0281-y. PMC 6364406. PMID 30728012 – via EBSCOhost.
27. Ng’wanakilala, Fumbuka (February 2013). "New Treatment Gives Hope to East Africa's Drug Users". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 91 (2): 89–90. doi:10.2471/BLT.13.030213. PMC 3605016. PMID 23554520 – via EBSCOhost.