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Which data is actually transmitted between issuing and acquiring banks during various phases of a card payment transaction?

Specifically, does the Issuer tell the Acquirer any info (and which if any?) not originally acquired from the Cardholder by the Acquirer? E.g., when doing a purchase on a website not asking the cardholder's name - does the Issuer tell the Acquirer this name at some point?

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Typically the issuer does not provide such information to the acquirer/merchant.

It will only provide information about the authorization of a transaction (ie accept / decline etc). It will, in specific circumstances if asked, confirm that the address provided by the customer matches the address held on record (the Address Verification Service or AVS) but again it's a confirmation of the information provided by the merchant/acquirer, the issuer wouldn't separately provide the addresses.

If you look carefully you can find the card scheme message formats on the internet.

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