Open microfluidics

Microfluidics refers to the flow of fluid in channels or networks with at least one dimension on the micron scale.[1][2] In open microfluidics, also referred to as open surface microfluidics or open-space microfluidics, at least one boundary confining the fluid flow of a system is removed, exposing the fluid to air or another interface such as a second fluid.[1][3][4]

Types of open microfluidics

Open microfluidics can be categorized into various subsets. Some examples of these subsets include open-channel microfluidics, paper-based, and thread-based microfluidics.[1][5][6]

Open-channel microfluidics

In open-channel microfluidics, a surface tension-driven capillary flow occurs and is referred to as spontaneous capillary flow (SCF).[1][7] SCF occurs when the pressure at the advancing meniscus is negative.[1] The geometry of the channel and contact angle of fluids has been shown to produce SCF if the following equation is true.

Where pf is the free perimeter of the channel (i.e., the interface not in contact with the channel wall), and pw is the wetted perimeter[8] (i.e., the walls in contact with the fluid), and θ is the contact angle of the fluid on the material of the device.[1][5]

Paper-based microfluidics

Paper-based microfluidics utilizes the wicking ability of paper for functional readouts.[9][10] Paper-based microfluidics is an attractive method because paper is cheap, easily accessible, and has a low environmental impact. Paper is also versatile because it is available in various thicknesses and pore sizes.[9] Coatings such as wax have been used to guide flow in paper microfluidics.[11] In some cases, dissolvable barriers have been used to create boundaries on the paper and control the fluid flow.[12] The application of paper as a diagnostic tool has shown to be powerful because it has successfully been used to detect glucose levels,[13] bacteria,[14] viruses,[15] and other components in whole blood.[16] Cell culture methods within paper have also been developed.[17][18] Lateral flow immunoassays, such as those used in pregnancy tests, are one example of the application of paper for point of care or home-based diagnostics.[19] Disadvantages include difficulty of fluid retention and high limits of detection.

Thread-based microfluidics

Thread-based microfluidics, an offshoot from paper-based microfluidics, utilizes the same capillary based wicking capabilities.[20] Common thread materials include nitrocellulose, rayon, nylon, hemp, wool, polyester, and silk.[21] Threads are versatile because they can be woven to form specific patterns.[22] Additionally, two or more threads can converge together in a knot bringing two separate ‘streams’ of fluid together as a reagent mixing method.[23] Threads are also relatively strong and difficult to break from handling which makes them stable over time and easy to transport.[21] Thread-based microfluidics has been applied to 3D tissue engineering and analyte analysis.[24][20]

Capillary filaments in open microfluidics

Open capillary microfluidics are channels that expose fluids to open air by excluding the ceiling and/or floor of the channel.[5] Rather than rely on using pumps or syringes to maintain flow, open capillary microfluidics uses surface tension to facilitate the flow.[25] The elimination of and infusion source reduces the size of the device and associated apparatus, along with other aspects that could obstruct their use. The dynamics of capillary-driven flow in open microfluidics are highly reliant on two types of geometric channels commonly known as either rectangular U-grooves or triangular V-grooves.[26][25] The geometry of the channels dictates the flow along the interior walls fabricated with various ever-evolving processes.[27]

Capillary filaments in U-groove
SCF in V-groove (left) V-groove open microfluidic channel (right)

Rectangular open-surface U-grooves are the easiest type of open microfluidic channel to fabricate. This design can maintain the same order of magnitude velocity in comparison to V-groove.[28][26][29] Channels are made of glass or high clarity glass substitutes such as polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polycarbonate (PC), or cyclic olefin copolymer (COP). To eliminate the remaining resistance after etching, channels are given hydrophilic treatment using oxygen plasma or deep reactive-ion etching(DRIE).[30][31][32]

Capillary filaments in V-groove
SCF in U-groove (left) U-groove open microfluidic channel SCF (right)

V-groove, unlike U-groove, allows for a variety of velocities depending on the groove angle.[29] V-grooves with sharp groove angle result in the interface curvature at the corners explained by reduced Concus-Finn conditions.[33] In a perfect inner corner of a V-groove, the filament will advance indefinitely in the groove allowing the formation of capillary filament depending on the wetting conditions.[34] The width of the groove plays an important role in controlling the fluid flow. The narrower the V-groove is, the better the capillary flow of liquids is even for highly viscous liquids such as blood; this effect has been used to produce an autonomous assay.[5][35] The fabrication of a V-groove is more difficult than a U-groove as it poses a higher risk for faulty construction, since the corner has to be tightly sealed.[30]

Advantages

One of the main advantages of open microfluidics is ease of accessibility which enables intervention (i.e., for adding or removing reagents) to the flowing liquid in the system.[36] Open microfluidics also allows simplicity of fabrication thus eliminating the need to bond surfaces. When one of the boundaries of a system is removed, a larger liquid-gas interface results, which enables liquid-gas reactions.[1][37] Open microfluidic devices enable better optical transparency because at least one side of the system is not covered by the material which can reduce autofluorescence during imaging.[38] Further, open systems minimize and sometimes eliminate bubble formation, a common problem in closed systems.[1]

In closed system microfluidics, the flow in the channels is driven by pressure via pumps (syringe pumps), valves (trigger valves), or electrical field.[39] An example of one of these methods for achieving low flow rates using temperature-controlled evaporation has been described for an open microfluidics system, allowing for long incubation hours for biological applications and requiring small sample volumes.[40] Open system microfluidics enable surface-tension driven flow in channels thereby eliminating the need for external pumping methods.[36][41] For example, some open microfluidic devices consist of a reservoir port and pumping port that can be filled with fluid using a pipette.[1][5][36] Eliminating external pumping requirements lowers cost and enables device use in all laboratories with pipettes.[37]

Disadvantages

Some drawbacks of open microfluidics include evaporation,[42] contamination,[43] and limited flow rate.[4] Open systems are susceptible to evaporation which can greatly affect readouts when fluid volumes are on the microscale.[42] Additionally, due to the nature of open systems, they are more susceptible to contamination than closed systems.[43] Cell culture and other methods where contamination or small particulates are a concern must be carefully performed to prevent contamination. Lastly, open systems have a limited flow rate because induced pressures cannot be used to drive flow.[4]

Applications

Like many microfluidic technologies, open system microfluidics has been applied to nanotechnology, biotechnology, fuel cells, and point of care (POC) testing.[1][4][44] For cell-based studies, open-channel microfluidic devices enable access to cells for single cell probing within the channel.[45] Other applications include capillary gel electrophoresis, water-in-oil emulsions, and biosensors for POC systems.[3][46][47] Suspended microfluidic devices, open microfluidic devices where the floor of the device is removed, have been used to study cellular diffusion and migration of cancer cells.[5] Suspended and rail-based microfluidics have been used for micropatterning and studying cell communication.[1]

gollark: And the hex format is more compact.
gollark: IPv6 addresses are 128-bit.
gollark: I don't think that lets you configure stuff like port/user/identity file.
gollark: I think it uses OpenSSH for SSH, so it should work fine.
gollark: If it uses a sensible SSH program, yes.

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