Irradiance

In radiometry, irradiance is the radiant flux (power) received by a surface per unit area. The SI unit of irradiance is the watt per square metre (W⋅m⁻²). The CGS unit erg per square centimetre per second (erg⋅cm⁻²⋅s⁻¹) is often used in astronomy. Irradiance is often called intensity, but this term is avoided in radiometry where such usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity. In astrophysics, irradiance is called radiant flux.[1]

Spectral irradiance is the irradiance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength, depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength. The two forms have different dimensions: spectral irradiance of a frequency spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per hertz (W⋅m⁻²⋅Hz⁻¹), while spectral irradiance of a wavelength spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per metre (W⋅m⁻³), or more commonly watts per square metre per nanometre (W⋅m⁻²⋅nm⁻¹).

Mathematical definitions

Irradiance

Irradiance of a surface, denoted E_e ("e" for "energetic", to avoid confusion with photometric quantities), is defined as[2]

${\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {e} }={\frac {\partial \Phi _{\mathrm {e} }}{\partial A}},}$

where

• ∂ is the partial derivative symbol;
• Φ_e is the radiant flux received;
• A is the area.

If we want to talk about the radiant flux emitted by a surface, we speak of radiant exitance.

Spectral irradiance

Spectral irradiance in frequency of a surface, denoted E_e,ν, is defined as[2]

${\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {e} ,\nu }={\frac {\partial E_{\mathrm {e} }}{\partial \nu }},}$

where ν is the frequency.

Spectral irradiance in wavelength of a surface, denoted E_e,λ, is defined as[2]

${\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {e} ,\lambda }={\frac {\partial E_{\mathrm {e} }}{\partial \lambda }},}$

where λ is the wavelength.

Property

Irradiance of a surface is also, according to the definition of radiant flux, equal to the time-average of the component of the Poynting vector perpendicular to the surface:

${\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {e} }=\langle |\mathbf {S} |\rangle \cos \alpha ,}$

where

• ⟨ • ⟩ is the time-average;
• S is the Poynting vector;
• α is the angle between a unit vector normal to the surface and S.

For a propagating sinusoidal linearly polarized electromagnetic plane wave, the Poynting vector always points to the direction of propagation while oscillating in magnitude. The irradiance of a surface is then given by[3]

${\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {e} }={\frac {n}{2\mu _{0}\mathrm {c} }}E_{\mathrm {m} }^{2}\cos \alpha ={\frac {n\varepsilon _{0}\mathrm {c} }{2}}E_{\mathrm {m} }^{2}\cos \alpha ,}$

where

• E_m is the amplitude of the wave's electric field;
• n is the refractive index of the medium of propagation;
• c is the speed of light in vacuum;
• μ₀ is the vacuum permeability;
• ε₀ is the vacuum permittivity.

This formula assumes that the magnetic susceptibility is negligible, i.e. that μ_r ≈ 1 where μ_r is the magnetic permeability of the propagation medium. This assumption is typically valid in transparent media in the optical frequency range.

Solar energy

The global irradiance on a horizontal surface on Earth consists of the direct irradiance E_e,dir and diffuse irradiance E_e,diff. On a tilted plane, there is another irradiance component, E_e,refl, which is the component that is reflected from the ground. The average ground reflection is about 20% of the global irradiance. Hence, the irradiance E_e on a tilted plane consists of three components:[4]

${\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {e} }=E_{\mathrm {e} ,\mathrm {dir} }+E_{\mathrm {e} ,\mathrm {diff} }+E_{\mathrm {e} ,\mathrm {refl} }.}$

The integral of solar irradiance over a time period is called "solar exposure" or "insolation".[4][5]

SI radiometry units

SI radiometry units

Quantity		Unit		Dimension	Notes
Name	Symbol[nb 1]	Name	Symbol	Symbol
Radiant energy	Qe[nb 2]	joule	J	M⋅L^2⋅T^−2	Energy of electromagnetic radiation.
Radiant energy density	we	joule per cubic metre	J/m^3	M⋅L^−1⋅T^−2	Radiant energy per unit volume.
Radiant flux	Φe[nb 2]	watt	W = J/s	M⋅L^2⋅T^−3	Radiant energy emitted, reflected, transmitted or received, per unit time. This is sometimes also called "radiant power".
Spectral flux	Φe,ν[nb 3]	watt per hertz	W/Hz	M⋅L^2⋅T^−2	Radiant flux per unit frequency or wavelength. The latter is commonly measured in W⋅nm^−1.
	Φe,λ[nb 4]	watt per metre	W/m	M⋅L⋅T^−3
Radiant intensity	Ie,Ω[nb 5]	watt per steradian	W/sr	M⋅L^2⋅T^−3	Radiant flux emitted, reflected, transmitted or received, per unit solid angle. This is a directional quantity.
Spectral intensity	Ie,Ω,ν[nb 3]	watt per steradian per hertz	W⋅sr^−1⋅Hz^−1	M⋅L^2⋅T^−2	Radiant intensity per unit frequency or wavelength. The latter is commonly measured in W⋅sr^−1⋅nm^−1. This is a directional quantity.
	Ie,Ω,λ[nb 4]	watt per steradian per metre	W⋅sr^−1⋅m^−1	M⋅L⋅T^−3
Radiance	Le,Ω[nb 5]	watt per steradian per square metre	W⋅sr^−1⋅m^−2	M⋅T^−3	Radiant flux emitted, reflected, transmitted or received by a surface, per unit solid angle per unit projected area. This is a directional quantity. This is sometimes also confusingly called "intensity".
Spectral radiance	Le,Ω,ν[nb 3]	watt per steradian per square metre per hertz	W⋅sr^−1⋅m^−2⋅Hz^−1	M⋅T^−2	Radiance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength. The latter is commonly measured in W⋅sr^−1⋅m^−2⋅nm^−1. This is a directional quantity. This is sometimes also confusingly called "spectral intensity".
	Le,Ω,λ[nb 4]	watt per steradian per square metre, per metre	W⋅sr^−1⋅m^−3	M⋅L^−1⋅T^−3
Irradiance Flux density	Ee[nb 2]	watt per square metre	W/m^2	M⋅T^−3	Radiant flux received by a surface per unit area. This is sometimes also confusingly called "intensity".
Spectral irradiance Spectral flux density	Ee,ν[nb 3]	watt per square metre per hertz	W⋅m^−2⋅Hz^−1	M⋅T^−2	Irradiance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength. This is sometimes also confusingly called "spectral intensity". Non-SI units of spectral flux density include jansky (1 Jy = 10^−26 W⋅m^−2⋅Hz^−1) and solar flux unit (1 sfu = 10^−22 W⋅m^−2⋅Hz^−1 = 10^4 Jy).
	Ee,λ[nb 4]	watt per square metre, per metre	W/m^3	M⋅L^−1⋅T^−3
Radiosity	Je[nb 2]	watt per square metre	W/m^2	M⋅T^−3	Radiant flux leaving (emitted, reflected and transmitted by) a surface per unit area. This is sometimes also confusingly called "intensity".
Spectral radiosity	Je,ν[nb 3]	watt per square metre per hertz	W⋅m^−2⋅Hz^−1	M⋅T^−2	Radiosity of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength. The latter is commonly measured in W⋅m^−2⋅nm^−1. This is sometimes also confusingly called "spectral intensity".
	Je,λ[nb 4]	watt per square metre, per metre	W/m^3	M⋅L^−1⋅T^−3
Radiant exitance	Me[nb 2]	watt per square metre	W/m^2	M⋅T^−3	Radiant flux emitted by a surface per unit area. This is the emitted component of radiosity. "Radiant emittance" is an old term for this quantity. This is sometimes also confusingly called "intensity".
Spectral exitance	Me,ν[nb 3]	watt per square metre per hertz	W⋅m^−2⋅Hz^−1	M⋅T^−2	Radiant exitance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength. The latter is commonly measured in W⋅m^−2⋅nm^−1. "Spectral emittance" is an old term for this quantity. This is sometimes also confusingly called "spectral intensity".
	Me,λ[nb 4]	watt per square metre, per metre	W/m^3	M⋅L^−1⋅T^−3
Radiant exposure	He	joule per square metre	J/m^2	M⋅T^−2	Radiant energy received by a surface per unit area, or equivalently irradiance of a surface integrated over time of irradiation. This is sometimes also called "radiant fluence".
Spectral exposure	He,ν[nb 3]	joule per square metre per hertz	J⋅m^−2⋅Hz^−1	M⋅T^−1	Radiant exposure of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength. The latter is commonly measured in J⋅m^−2⋅nm^−1. This is sometimes also called "spectral fluence".
	He,λ[nb 4]	joule per square metre, per metre	J/m^3	M⋅L^−1⋅T^−2
Hemispherical emissivity	ε	N/A		1	Radiant exitance of a surface, divided by that of a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
Spectral hemispherical emissivity	εν  or ελ	N/A		1	Spectral exitance of a surface, divided by that of a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
Directional emissivity	εΩ	N/A		1	Radiance emitted by a surface, divided by that emitted by a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
Spectral directional emissivity	εΩ,ν  or εΩ,λ	N/A		1	Spectral radiance emitted by a surface, divided by that of a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
Hemispherical absorptance	A	N/A		1	Radiant flux absorbed by a surface, divided by that received by that surface. This should not be confused with "absorbance".
Spectral hemispherical absorptance	Aν  or Aλ	N/A		1	Spectral flux absorbed by a surface, divided by that received by that surface. This should not be confused with "spectral absorbance".
Directional absorptance	AΩ	N/A		1	Radiance absorbed by a surface, divided by the radiance incident onto that surface. This should not be confused with "absorbance".
Spectral directional absorptance	AΩ,ν  or AΩ,λ	N/A		1	Spectral radiance absorbed by a surface, divided by the spectral radiance incident onto that surface. This should not be confused with "spectral absorbance".
Hemispherical reflectance	R	N/A		1	Radiant flux reflected by a surface, divided by that received by that surface.
Spectral hemispherical reflectance	Rν  or Rλ	N/A		1	Spectral flux reflected by a surface, divided by that received by that surface.
Directional reflectance	RΩ	N/A		1	Radiance reflected by a surface, divided by that received by that surface.
Spectral directional reflectance	RΩ,ν  or RΩ,λ	N/A		1	Spectral radiance reflected by a surface, divided by that received by that surface.
Hemispherical transmittance	T	N/A		1	Radiant flux transmitted by a surface, divided by that received by that surface.
Spectral hemispherical transmittance	Tν  or Tλ	N/A		1	Spectral flux transmitted by a surface, divided by that received by that surface.
Directional transmittance	TΩ	N/A		1	Radiance transmitted by a surface, divided by that received by that surface.
Spectral directional transmittance	TΩ,ν  or TΩ,λ	N/A		1	Spectral radiance transmitted by a surface, divided by that received by that surface.
Hemispherical attenuation coefficient	μ	reciprocal metre	m^−1	L^−1	Radiant flux absorbed and scattered by a volume per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
Spectral hemispherical attenuation coefficient	μν  or μλ	reciprocal metre	m^−1	L^−1	Spectral radiant flux absorbed and scattered by a volume per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
Directional attenuation coefficient	μΩ	reciprocal metre	m^−1	L^−1	Radiance absorbed and scattered by a volume per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
Spectral directional attenuation coefficient	μΩ,ν  or μΩ,λ	reciprocal metre	m^−1	L^−1	Spectral radiance absorbed and scattered by a volume per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
See also: SI · Radiometry · Photometry

1. Standards organizations recommend that radiometric quantities should be denoted with suffix "e" (for "energetic") to avoid confusion with photometric or photon quantities.
2. Alternative symbols sometimes seen: W or E for radiant energy, P or F for radiant flux, I for irradiance, W for radiant exitance.
3. Spectral quantities given per unit frequency are denoted with suffix "ν" (Greek)—not to be confused with suffix "v" (for "visual") indicating a photometric quantity.
4. Spectral quantities given per unit wavelength are denoted with suffix "λ" (Greek).
5. Directional quantities are denoted with suffix "Ω" (Greek).

See also

• Illuminance
• Spectral flux density
• Albedo
• Fluence
• Insolation
• Light diffusion
• PI curve (photosynthesis-irradiance curve)
• Solar azimuth angle
• Solar irradiance
• Solar noon
• Stefan–Boltzmann law

References

1. Carroll, Bradley W. (2017-09-07). An introduction to modern astrophysics. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-108-42216-1. OCLC 991641816.
2. "Thermal insulation — Heat transfer by radiation — Physical quantities and definitions". ISO 9288:1989. ISO catalogue. 1989. Retrieved 2015-03-15.
3. Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics (3. ed., reprint. with corr. ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ [u.a.]: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X.
4. Quaschning, Volker (2003). "Technology fundamentals—The sun as an energy resource". Renewable Energy World. 6 (5): 90–93.
5. Liu, B. Y. H.; Jordan, R. C. (1960). "The interrelationship and characteristic distribution of direct, diffuse and total solar radiation". Solar Energy. 4 (3): 1. Bibcode:1960SoEn....4....1L. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(60)90062-1.