Sistotrema brinkmannii

Sistotrema brinkmannii, a resupinate wood-rotting basidiomycete, is a fungus found in soil, moss, debris, rotten woods as well as woods including seedling roots of Pinus banksiana Lamb. and ectomycorrhizae.[1][2][3] No health issues caused by this fungus in human and animals have been reported although it is causative of brown rot.[4] This fungus grows rapidly on malt extract agar (MEA), forming white mats with a faint sweet odour.[5][4] It is commonly called "chain chlamydospore fungus" because bulbils are formed by chains of its cells that resemble chlamydospores.[4] The basidia of this fungus are urniform and usually possess 6-8 sterigmata, and the spores are smooth and slightly curved.[6][7]

Sistotrema brinkmannii
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Cantharellales
Family: Hydnaceae
Genus: Sistotrema
Species:
S. brinkmannii
Binomial name
Sistotrema brinkmannii
(Bres.) J. Erikss. (1948)
Synonyms
  • Odontia brinkmannii G. Bresadola (1903)
  • Grandinia brinkmannii Bourdot & Galzin (1914)
  • Trechispora brinkmannii D.P. Rogers & H.S. Jacks. (1943)

History and taxonomy

Sistotrema brinkmannii possessed several synonyms in the early twentieth century including Corticium coronilla and Corticium octosporum, named by v. Höhnel & Litschauer and Schroeter ex v. Hohnel & Litschauer in 1906 respectively, and (Bres.) J. Erikss. named it Sistotrema brinkmannii in 1948.[7] This fungus has been known as a cotton root rot pathogen, and it was thought to be an outdoor airborne fungus as there had been no reports suggesting its presence in indoor air.[8] However, studies in Scotland found that 56% of indoor air samples from 51% of homes contained Sistotrema brinkmannii, indicating that wood rot observed in houses can be caused by this fungus.[9]

The basidia of Sistotrema brinkmannii usually range 10-20 × 5-8 μm and spores are 4-5 × 2-2.5 μm in size.[6] This fungus was believed to be one of the different life stages of Phymatotrichum omnivorum. However, they are distinguished from each other based on the feature of their hyphae; hyphae of Sistotrema brinkmannii have dolipore septum while Phymatotrichum omnivorum possesses the simple type.[10] Phylogenetic analyses sequencing genes such as mtSSU and RPB2 can strongly support the monophyly of this fungus, sorting it into the same monophyletic group as Clavulina-Membranomyces.[11]

Growth and morphology

In 1994, Adan found that about 30% of the fungi floating in the air is Sistotrema brinkmannii in England, and the proportion increases to near 60% in winter.[12] On the other hand, the presence of this fungus in the air significantly decreases in summer and autumn. His study indicates that Sistotrema brinkmannii is not a dominant fungus in the air throughout the year, compared to other airborne fungi such as Penicillium, Cladosporium, and mycelia sterilia.[12]

The membrane of this fungus is white and has waxy and soft texture when it is fresh. When it gets dry, it becomes pale cream and its texture gets ashy and brittle.[6] It is oxidase negative and the hyphae containing numerous clamps are oil-rich, contributing to its coarse granular appearance.[4][7] The mycelium of this fungus can cultivate on trama of Trametes hirsuta fruit bodies, as well as on wood-inhabiting basidiomycetes, with the help of a technique called "moisture gradient technique".[13]

Physiology

Sistotrema brinkmannii produces β-1,3/1,4-glucanase which has a great catalytic efficiency towards a variety of specific substrates. For instance, it converts Avicel containing microcrystalline cellulose to glucose at pH 4.0 and 65°C.[14] It also forms white thin mycelial mats by microfiltration to protect itself from chemicals and microorganisms in soil and water.[4] It decays window joinery in the house although it does not produce many spores, indicating that it is more widespread in indoor air compared to other fungi, such as Serpula lacrymans, which are associated with indoor wood decay.[9]

Habitat and reproduction

Both outdoor and indoor airs may contain Sistotrema brinkmannii. It was found that this fungus can contaminate washing machines in houses, but it is not a causative agent of human diseases or formation of malodour.[15] The number of spores in dwellings increases as a result of surface disturbance such as vacuum cleaning of floors.[16] This fungus may contaminate biofilms called endobronchial stents as well, which are used as an antibiotic treatment for airway complications such as lung transplantation.[17] However, this contamination does not cause any serious issues in human health while some other fungi, including Scedosporium, which possibly contaminate the biofilms are known to be opportunistic pathogens in human.[17]

This fungus can reproduce sexually by both breeding and self-breeding which systems are called heterothallism and homothallism, respectively.[18] There are three different incompatibility groups identified based on the reproductive mechanisms: bipolar heterothallic forms, tetrapolar heterothallic forms, and homothallic forms.[3] These reproductive forms are dependent on its genetics.[18][2] It was believed that homothallic forms are intersterile while both bipolar and tetrapolar heterothallic forms are capable of mating.[18] In 1969, Lemke recognized that bipolar heterothallic forms and tetrapolar heterothallic forms also have intersterility as well as homothallic forms.[3] In the study, he defines intersterility as the inability to form a prototrophic heterokaryon through nutritional forcing. The study indicates that all groups are in fact intersterile with each other, meaning that the mating must be carried out within the same group for successful sexual reproduction. Among the three groups, homothallic and bipolar forms groups may occasionally be hybridized due to nutritional forces.[3]

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References
  1. Dumroese, R.Kasten; Jurgensen, Martin F.; Potvin, Lynette R.; Richter, Dana L. (April 2012). "Association of Pinus banksiana Lamb. and Populus tremuloides Michx. seedling fine roots with Sistotrema brinkmannii (Bres.) J. Erikss. (Basidiomycotina)". Mycorrhiza. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. 22 (8): 631–638. doi:10.1007/s00572-012-0440-4. PMID 22476582.
  2. Raper, John R.; Ullrich, Robert C. (January 1975). "Primary Homothallism-relation to Heterothallism in the Regulation of Sexual Morphogenesis in Sistotrema". Genetics. Burlington, Vermont: Department of Botany, University of Vermont. 80 (2): 311–321. PMC 1213329. PMID 17248683.CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  3. Ullrich, Robert C. (January 1973). "Sexuality, Incompatibility, and Intersterility in the Biology of the Sistotrema brinkmannii Aggregate". Mycologia. Oxfordshire, UK: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 65 (6): 1234–1249. doi:10.1080/00275514.1973.12019546.CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  4. Wang, C.J.K.; Zabel, R.A. (1990). Identification Manual for Fungi from Utility Poles in the Eastern United States. Virginia: Amer Type Culture Collection. ISBN 978-0930009311.
  5. Alcorn, S.M.; Bloss, Sophie Dong.H.E. (1981). "Ultrastructure and Comparison of Phymatotrichum omnivorum and Sistotrema brinkmannii". Mycologia (2nd ed.). Oxfordshire, UK: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. ISSN 0027-5514.
  6. Ellis, M.B.; Ellis, J.P. (1990). Fungi without Gills (Hymenomycetes and Gasteromycetes). London, UK: Champman and Hall. ISBN 0412369702.
  7. Blanchette, R.A.; Chen, S.Y.; Hao, Y.; Liu, X.Z. (November 2010). "Sistotrema brinkmannii, a psychrotolerant fungus from Antarctic soil". Mycosystema. Beijing, China: Mycological Society of China. 29: 864–868. ISSN 1672-6472.CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  8. Hansen, K.; Marek, S.M.; Romanish, M.; Thorn, R.G. (March 2009). "Molecular systematics of the cotton root rot pathogen, Phymatotrichopsis omnivora". Persoonia. Leiden, Netherlands: Naturalis Biodiversity Center. 22: 63–74. doi:10.3767/003158509X430930. PMC 2789547. PMID 20198139.CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  9. Singh, J. (2006). Building Mycology: Management of Decay and Health in Buildings. London, UK: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781135824617.
  10. Dong, S.; Bloss, H.E.; Alcorn, S.M. (August 1980). "Ultrastructure and Comparison of Phymatotrichum Omnivorum and Sistotrema Brinkmannii". Mycologia. London, UK: Taylor & Francis. 73 (2): 321–333. doi:10.1080/00275514.1981.12021348.
  11. Moncalvo, J.M.; Nisson, R.H.; Koster, B.; Dunham, S.M.; Bernauer, T.; Matheny, P.B.; et al. (December 2006). "The cantharelloid clade: dealing with incongruent gene trees and phylogenetic reconstruction methods". Mycologia. London, UK: Taylor & Francis. 98 (6): 937–948. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.6.937.CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  12. Adan, O.C.G. (1994). Health Implications of Fungi in Indoor Environments (AIr Quality Monographs). Edinburgh, UK: Elsevier Science Ltd. ISBN 978-0444818669.
  13. Messner, K.; Stachelberger, H. (June 1980). "Spore Bodies and a New Type of Conidium in Sistotrema brinkmannii". Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. Edinburgh, UK: Elsevier Ltd. 74 (3): 551–556. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(80)80055-6.CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  14. Choi, Joon-Ho; Kim, In-Won; Lee, Jung-Kul; Ramachandran, Priyadharshini; Zhao, Zongpei (June 2013). "Purification and Characterization of a Novel β-1,3/ 1,4-glucanase from Sistotrema brinkmannii HQ717718". J Korean Soc Appl Biol Chem. New York, NY: Springer. 56 (3): 263–270. doi:10.1007/s13765-013-3028-6.CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  15. Babic, M.N.; Zalar, P.; Zenko, B.; Schroers, H.; Dzeroski, S.; Gunde-Cimerman, N. (January 2015). "Candida and Fusarium species known as opportunistic human pathogens from customer-accessible parts of residential washing machines". The British Mycological Society. Edinburgh, UK: Elsevier Ltd. 119 (2–3): 95–113. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2014.10.007. PMID 25749362.CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  16. Hunter, C.A.; Grant, C.; Flannigan, B.; Bravery, A.F. (February 1988). "Mould in buildings: the air spora of domestic dwellings". International Biodeterioration. Edinburgh, UK: Elsevier Ltd. 24 (2): 81–101. doi:10.1016/0265-3036(88)90052-8.CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  17. McGinniss, J.E.; Imai, I.; Simon-Soro, A.; Brown, M.C.; Knecht, V.R.; Frye, L.; et al. (May 2019). "Molecular analysis of the endobronchial stent microbial biofilm reveals bacterial communities that associate with stent material and frequent fungal constituents". Endobronchial Stent Biofilm Microbiome. San Francisco, CA: PLoS ONE. 14 (5): e0217306. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1417306M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0217306. PMID 31141557.CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  18. Raper, John R.; Ullrich, Robert C. (August 1974). "Number and Distribution of Bipolar Incompatibility Factors in Sistotrema brinkmannii". The American Naturalist. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press for The American Society of Naturalists. 108 (962): 507–518. doi:10.1086/282930.CS1 maint: date and year (link)
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