Austronesian personal pronouns
This article describes the personal pronoun systems of various Austronesian languages.
Proto-languages
The Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian personal pronouns below were reconstructed by Robert Blust.[1]
| Type of Pronoun | English | Proto-Austronesian | Proto-Malayo-Polynesian |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | "I" | *i-aku | *i-aku |
| 2s. | "you" | *i-(ka)Su | *i-kahu |
| 3s. | "he/she/it" | *si-ia | *si-ia |
| 1p. (inclusive) | "we (and you)" | *i-(k)ita | *i-(k)ita |
| 1p. (exclusive) | "we (but not you)" | *i-(k)ami | *i-(k)ami |
| 2p. | "you all" | *i-kamu | *i-kamu, ihu |
| 3p. | "they" | *si-ida | *si-ida |
In 2006, Malcolm Ross also proposed seven different pronominal categories for persons. The categories are listed below, with the Proto-Austronesian first person singular ("I") given as examples.[2]
- Neutral (e.g., PAN *i-aku)
- Nominative 1 (e.g., PAN *aku)
- Nominative 2 (e.g., PAN *=ku, *[S]aku)
- Accusative (e.g., PAN *i-ak-ən)
- Genitive 1 (e.g., PAN *=[a]ku)
- Genitive 2 (e.g., PAN *(=)m-aku)
- Genitive 3 (e.g., PAN *n-aku)
The following is from Ross' 2002 proposal of the Proto-Austronesian pronominal system, which contains five categories, including the free (i.e., independent or unattached), free polite, and three genitive categories.
| Free | Free polite | Genitive 1 | Genitive 2 | Genitive 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | *[i-]aku | - | *=ku | *maku | *n-aku |
| 2s. | *[i-]Su | *[i-]ka-Su | *=Su | *miSu | *ni-Su |
| 3s. | *s(i)-ia | - | (*=ia) | - | *n(i)-ia |
| 1p. (excl.) | *i-ami | *[i-]k-ami | *=mi | *mami | *n(i)-ami |
| 1p. (incl.) | *([i])ita | *[i-]k-ita | *=ta | *mita | *n-ita |
| 2p. | *i-amu | *[i-]k-amu | *=mu | *mamu | *n(i)-amu |
| 3p. | *si-da | - | (*=da) | - | *ni-da |
Formosan languages
Rukai
Below are Rukai pronouns from Zeitoun (1997).[3] Paul Jen-kuei Li's classification of Rukai dialects is given for reference.
- Rukai
- Mantauran (萬山 Wanshan) – 250-300 speakers
- (Main branch)
- Maga-Tona
- Maga (馬加 Majia)
- Tona (多納 Duona)
- Budai-Tanan (Rukai Proper)
- Budai (霧台 Wutai)
- Tanan (大南 Danan)
- Maga-Tona
| Type of Pronoun |
Topic | Nominative | Oblique | Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | iɭaə | -ɭao, nao- | -i-a-ə | -li |
| 2s. | imiaʔə | -moʔo | i-miaʔ-ə | -ʔo |
| 3s. (vis.) | ana | - | -i-n-ə | -(n)i |
| 3s. (not vis.) | ðona | - | -i-ð-ə | -ða |
| 1p. (incl.) | imitə, ita | -mita, -ta | -i-mit-ə | -ta |
| 1p. (excl.) | inamə | -nai | -i-nam-ə | -nai |
| 2p. | inomə | -nomi | -i-nom-ə | -nomi |
| 3p. (vis.) | ana-lo | - | -i-l-i-n-ə | -l-i-ni |
| 3p. (not vis.) | ðona-lo | - | -i-l-i-ð-ə | -l-i-ða |
| Type of Pronoun |
Topic | Nominative | Oblique | Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | kunaku | -(n)aku, naw- | nakuanə | -li |
| 2s. | kusu | -su | musuanə | -su |
| 3s. (vis.) | kuini | - | inianə | -ini |
| 3s. (not vis.) | kuiɖa | - | - | - |
| 1p. (incl.) | kuta | -ta | mitaanə | -ta |
| 1p. (excl.) | kunai | -nai | naianə | -nai |
| 2p. | kunumi | -numi, -nu | numianə | -numi |
| 3p. (vis.) | kuini | - | inianə | -ini |
| 3p. (not vis.) | kuiɖa | - | - | - |
| Type of Pronoun |
Topic | Nominative | Oblique | Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | i kɨkɨ | ku-, kɨkɨ | ŋkua | -li |
| 2s. | i musu | su-, musu | sua | -su |
| 3s. (vis.) | i kini | kini | nia | -ini |
| 3s. (not vis.) | i kiɖi | kiɖi | ɖia | -ɖa |
| 1p. (incl.) | i miti | ta-, miti | mitia | -ta |
| 1p. (excl.) | i knamɨ | namɨ-, knamɨ | nmaa | -namɨ |
| 2p. | i mumu | mu-, mumu | mua | -mu |
| 3p. (vis.) | i kini | kini | nia | -ini |
| 3p. (not vis.) | i kiɖi | kiɖi | ɖia | -ɖa |
Tsouic
The personal pronouns below are from the Tfuya dialect of Tsou, and are sourced from Zeitoun (2005:277).[4] Note that third-person pronouns are distinguished between those that are visible (abbreviated vis. below) or non-visible.
| Type of Pronoun |
Free (neutral) |
Bound (nominative) |
Bound (genitive) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | a'o | -'o/-'u | -'o/-'u |
| 2s. | suu | -su/-ko | -su/-ko |
| 3s. (vis.) | taini | -ta | -taini |
| 3s. (not vis.) | ic'o | - | -si |
| 1p. (incl.) | a'ati | -to | -to |
| 1p. (excl.) | a'ami | -mza | -mza |
| 2p. | muu | -mu | -mu |
| 3p. (vis.) | hin'i | -hin'i | -hin'i |
| 3p. (not vis.) | hee | - | -he |
Northwestern Formosan
Pazeh
The Pazeh personal pronouns below are from Li (2000).[5] (Note: vis. = visible, prox. = proximal)
| Type of Pronoun |
Neutral | Nominative | Genitive | Locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | yaku | aku | naki | yakuan, yakunan |
| 2s. | isiw | siw | nisiw | isiwan |
| 2s. (prox.) | imini | mini | nimini | iminiyan |
| 3s. (vis.) | imisiw | misiw | nimisiw | misiwan |
| 3s. (not vis.) | isia | sia | nisia | isiaan |
| 1p. (incl.) | ita | ta | nita (ta-) | itaan |
| 1p. (excl.) | yami | ami | nyam(i) | yamian, yaminan |
| 2p. | imu | mu | nimu | imuan |
| 2p. (prox.) | yamini | amini | naamini | yaminiyan |
| 3p. (vis.) | yamisiw | amisiw | naamisiw | yamisiwan |
| 3p. (not vis.) | yasia | Asia | naasia | yasiaan |
Saisiyat
Saisiyat has an elaborate pronominal system (Hsieh & Huang 2006:93).[6]
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Accusative | Genitive | Dative | Possessive | Locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | yako, yao | yakin, iyakin | ma'an | 'iniman | 'amana'a | kanman |
| 2s. | So'o | 'iso'on | niSo | 'iniSo | 'anso'o'a | kanSo |
| 3s. | sia | hisia | nisia | inisia | 'ansiaa | kansia |
| 1p. (incl.) | 'ita | 'inimita | mita' | 'inimita' | 'anmita'a | kan'ita |
| 1p. (excl.) | yami | 'iniya'om | niya'om | 'iniya'om | 'anya'oma | kanyami |
| 2p. | moyo | 'inimon | nimon | 'inimon | 'anmoyoa | kanmoyo |
| 3p. | lasia | hilasia | nasia | 'inilasia | 'anlasiaa | kanlasia |
Thao
The Thao personal pronouns below are from Blust (2003:207).[7] Note that there is only 1 form each for "we (exclusive)," "you (plural)" and "they."
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Accusative | Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | yaku | yakin | nak[8] |
| 2s. | ihu | ihu-n | m-ihu[9] |
| 3s. | cicu | cicu-n | cicu[10] |
| 1p. (incl.) | ita | ita-n | m-ita |
| 1p. (excl.) | yamin | yamin | yamin |
| 2p. | maniun | maniun | maniun |
| 3p. | caycuy | caycuy | caycuy |
Favorlang
The following Favorlang personal pronouns are from Li (2003:8). All of them are free forms. All genitive pronouns end with -a.
| Type of Pronoun |
Neutral | Genitive | Nominative/Accusative |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | ka-ina | na-a | ina |
| 2s. | ijonoë | joa, oa | ijo |
| 3s. | icho | choa | icho |
| 1p. (incl.) | torro | torroa | - |
| 1p. (excl.) | namono | namoa | namo |
| 2p. | imonoë | imoa | imo |
| 3p. | aicho-es dechonoë | choa | decho |
Atayalic
The Wulai and Mayrinax Atayal personal pronouns below are sourced from Huang (1995).[11] In both varieties, the nominative and genitive forms are bound while the neutral and locative ones are free (unbound).
Wulai Atayal
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Genitive | Locative | Neutral |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | sakuʔ, kuʔ | makuʔ, mu, kuʔ | knan | kuzing, kun |
| 2s. | suʔ | suʔ | sunan | isuʔ |
| 3s. | - | nyaʔ | hiyan | hiyaʔ |
| 1p. (incl.) | taʔ | taʔ | itan | itaʔ |
| 1p. (excl.) | sami | myan | sminan | sami |
| 2p. | simu | mamu | smunan | simu |
| 3p. | - | nhaʔ | hgan | hgaʔ |
Mayrinax Atayal
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Genitive | Neutral |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | cu, ciʔ | mu, miʔ | kuing |
| 2s. | suʔ, siʔ | suʔ | isuʔ |
| 3s. | - | niaʔ | hiyaʔ |
| 1p. (incl.) | taʔ, tiʔ | taʔ, tiʔ | itaʔ |
| 1p. (excl.) | cami | niam | cami |
| 2p. | cimu | mamu | cimu |
| 3p. | - | nhaʔ | nhaʔ |
Teruku Seediq
| Type of Pronoun |
Direct | Oblique | Independent possessive |
Subject | Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | yaku | kenan | (ne-)naku | =ku | =mu |
| 2s. | isu | sunan | (ne-)nisu | =su | =su |
| 3s. | hiya | hiyaan | ne-hiya | - | =na |
| 1p. (incl.) | 'ita | tenan | (ne-)nita | =ta | =ta |
| 1p. (excl.) | yami | menani | (ne-)nami | =nami | =nami |
| 2p. | yamu | munan | (ne-)namu | =namu | =namu |
| 3p. | dehiya | dehiyaan | ne-dehiya | - | =deha |
East Formosan
Siraya
The Siraya personal pronouns below are from Adelaar (1997).[13]
| Type of Pronoun |
Free | Actor or Possessive |
Topic | Oblique |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | ĭau | -(m)au | -koh | ĭau-an |
| 2s. | ĭmhu | -(m)uhu, -(m)oho | -kow | ĭmhu-an |
| 3s. | teni | tĭn | teni | tĭni-än (tĭni-an) |
| 1p. (incl.) | ĭmĭtta | -(m)ĭtta, -(m)eta | -kĭtta | ĭmittä-n |
| 1p. (excl.) | ĭmi-an | -(m)ian, -(m)iän | -kame | mian-än (mian-an) |
| 2p. | ĭmumi | -(m)umi | (-)kamu | ĭmumi-än (ĭmumi-an) |
| 3p. | ta neini | nein | neini | neini-än (neini-an) |
Taivoan
The Taivoan personal pronouns:[14][15][16]
| Type of Pronoun | Independent | Nominative | Genitive | Oblique |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | iau | kuri | ku | iyaw-an |
| 2s. | imho | ko | (m)ho | imho-an |
| 3s. | teni | ta teni | tin | tini-an |
| 1p. (incl.) | imita | kita | (m)ita | imita-n |
| 1p. (excl.) | imian | kame | (m)ian | imian-an |
| 2p. | imomi | kamo | (m)omi | imomi-an |
| 3p. | naini | ta naini | nin | naini-an |
Kavalan
The Kavalan personal pronouns below are from Li (2006:30).[17]
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Genitive | Oblique | Locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | aiku, =iku | zaku, -ku | timaiku | tamaikuan |
| 2s. | aisu, =isu | zasu, -su | timaisu | tamaisuan |
| 3s. | aizipna tiyau | zana, -na | timaizipna tiyau | tamaizipan tiyauan |
| 1p. (incl.) | aita, =ita | zata, -ta, -kita | timaita | tamaitan |
| 1p. (excl.) | aimi, =imi | zanyaq, -nyaq | timaimi | tamaimian |
| 2p. | aimu, =imu | zanumi, -numi | timaimu | tamaimuan |
| 3p. | qaniyau | zana, -na | qaniyau | taqaniyauan |
Basay
The Basay personal pronouns below are from Li (1999:639).[18]
| Type of Pronoun |
Neutral | Nominative | Genitive | Oblique |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | yaku | kaku, -ku | maku-, -aku; naku, -ak | yakuan, kuan, kuanan |
| 2s. | isu | kisu, -su | misu, -isu; nisu, -su ~ -is | isuan, suan, isuanan, suanan |
| 3s. | - | -ia | - | - |
| 1p. (incl.) | mita | kita, -ita | mita, -ita; nita, -ta | ... , ... , tianan |
| 1p. (excl.) | yami | -mi | yami, -ami; nami, -am | yamian, mian, mianan |
| 2p. | imu | kimu, -mu | -imu; nimu, -im | imuan, ... , imuanan |
| 3p. | - | -ia | - | - |
Bunun
Takivatan Bunun personal pronoun roots are (De Busser 2009:453):[19]
- 1s: -ak-
- 2s: -su-
- 3s: -is-
- 1p (incl.): -at-
- 1p (excl.): -ðam-
- 2p: -(a)mu-
- 3p: -in-
The tables of Takivatan Bunun personal pronouns below are sourced from De Busser (2009:441).
| Type of Pronoun |
Root | Foc. Agent (bound) |
Non-Foc. Agent (bound) |
Neutral | Foc. Agent | Locative | Possessive |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | -ak- | -(ʔ)ak | -(ʔ)uk | ðaku, nak | sak, saikin | ðakuʔan | inak, ainak, nak |
| 2s. | -su- | -(ʔ)as | - | suʔu, su | - | suʔuʔan | isu, su |
| 1p. (incl.) | -at- | - | - | mita | ʔata, inʔata | mitaʔan | imita |
| 1p. (excl.) | -ðam- | -(ʔ)am | - | ðami, nam | ðamu, sam | ðamiʔan | inam, nam |
| 2p. | -(a)mu- | -(ʔ)am | - | muʔu, mu | amu | muʔuʔan | imu, mu |
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| [Root] | -is- | -in- |
| Proximal | isti | inti |
| Medial | istun | intun |
| Distal | ista | inta |
Iskubun Bunun personal pronouns are somewhat different (De Busser 2009:454).
| Type of Pronoun |
Agent | Undergoer | Possessive |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | saikin, -ik | ðaku, -ku | inak, nak |
| 2s. | kasu, -as | su | isu, su |
| 3s. | saia | saiʤa | isaiʤa, saiʤa |
| 1p. (incl.) | kata, -ta | mita | imita |
| 1p. (excl.) | kaimin, -im | ðami | inam |
| 2p. | kamu, -am | mu | imu |
| 3p. | naia | inaiʤa | naiʤa |
Paiwan
The Kuɬaɬau Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell (1982:14).
| Type of Pronoun |
Equational | Genitive | Non-Eq., Non-Gen. |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | -aken, ti-aken | ku-, ni-aken | tjanu-aken |
| 2s. | -sun, ti-sun | su-, ni-sun | tjanu-sun |
| 3s. | ti-madju | ni-madju | tjai-madju |
| 1p. (incl.) | -itjen, ti-tjen | tja-, ni-tjen | tjanu-itjen |
| 1p. (excl.) | -amen, ti-amen | nia-, ni-amen | tjanu-amen |
| 2p. | -mun, t-mun | nu-, ni-mun | tjanu-mun |
| 3p. | ti-a-madju | ni-a-madju | tjai-a-madju |
Puyuma
The Nanwang Puyuma personal pronouns below are from Teng (2008:61-64).
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative[20] | Oblique: Direct |
Oblique: Indirect |
Oblique: Non-Subject |
Neutral |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | nanku | kanku, kananku | draku, drananku | kanku | kuiku |
| 2s. | nanu | kanu, kananu | dranu, drananu | kanu | yuyu |
| 3s. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | taytaw |
| 1p. (incl.) | nanta | kanta, kananta | drata, drananta | kanta | taita |
| 1p. (excl.) | naniam | kaniam, kananiam | draniam, drananiam | kaniam | mimi |
| 2p. | nanemu | kanemu, kananemu | dranemu, drananemu | kanemu | muimu |
| 3p. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | - |
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative (Subject) |
Nominative (Possessor of subject) |
Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | =ku | ku= | ku= |
| 2s. | =yu | nu= | nu= |
| 3s. | - | tu= | tu= |
| 1p. (incl.) | =ta | ta= | ta= |
| 1p. (excl.) | =mi | niam= | mi= |
| 2p. | =mu | mu= | mu= |
| 3p. | - | tu= | tu= |
Malayo-Polynesian languages
Philippine languages
Ilokano
Ilokano personal pronouns distinguish three cases: absolutive, ergative, and oblique. They also distinguish three numbers: singular, dual and plural.
Accent marks in the following table are not written, but given here for pronunciation purposes.
| Absolutive | Ergative | Oblique | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Disjunctive | Enclitic (-ak)[21] | Enclitic (-ko)[22] | Disjunctive | |
| 1st person singular | siák [23] | -ak [24] | -k(o) [25][26] | kaniák |
| 1st person dual | datá, sitá [23] | -ta | -ta | kadatá |
| 2nd person singular | siká [23] | -ka | -m(o) [25] | kenká |
| 3rd person singular | isú(na) | -Ø [27] | -na | kenkuána |
| 1st person plural inclusive | datayó, sitayó [23] | -tayó | -tayó | kadatayó |
| 1st person plural exclusive | dakamí, sikamí [23] | -kamí | -mi | kadakamí |
| 2nd person plural | dakayó, sikayó [23] | -kayó | -yo | kadakayó |
| 3rd person plural | isúda | -da | -da | kadakuáda |
Tagalog
Like nouns, Tagalog personal pronouns are categorized by case. As above, the indirect forms also function as the genitive.
| Direct (ang) | Indirect (ng) | Oblique (sa) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | akó | ko | akin |
| 1st person dual | kitá/kata[28] | nitá/nata[28] | kanitá/kanata (ata)[28] |
| 1st person plural inclusive | tayo | natin | atin |
| 1st person plural exclusive | kamí | namin | amin |
| 2nd person singular | ikáw (ka) | mo | iyó |
| 2nd person plural | kayó | ninyó | inyó |
| 3rd person singular | siyá | niyá | kaniyá |
| 3rd person plural | silá | nilá | kanilá |
Cebuano
Like nouns, Cebuano personal pronouns are categorized by case.
| Kinsa | Tag-iya (primary) | Tag-iya (modifier) | Oblique | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | ako | akoa | nako | kanako |
| 2nd person singular | ikaw | imoha | nimo | kanimo |
| 3rd person singular | siya / sya | iyaha /iya | niya | kaniya |
| 1st person plural inclusive | kita | atoa / ato | nato | kanato |
| 1st person plural exclusive | kami | amoa / amo | namo | kanamo |
| 2nd person plural | kamo | inyoha | ninyo | kaninyo |
| 3rd person plural | sila | ilaha | nila | kanila |
*The two sets of tag-iya case function similarly except that the primary tag-iya would need the unifying linker nga and the modifier tag-iya cannot be used as complementary adjective.
**The final syllable of a primary tag-iya pronoun is mostly dropped.
When the pronoun is not the first word of the sentence, the short form is more commonly used than the full form.
| Kinsa | Tag-iya (primary) | Tag-iya (modifier) | Oblique | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | ko | ako | ko | nako |
| 2nd person singular | ka | imo | mo | nimo |
| 3rd person singular | siya | iya | niya | niya |
| 1st person plural inclusive | ta | ato | ta | nato |
| 1st person plural exclusive | mi | amo | namo | namo |
| 2nd person plural | mo | inyo | ninyo | ninyo |
| 3rd person plural | sila | ila | nila | nila |
*When the object is a second person pronoun, use ta instead of ko.
Malay
The informal pronouns aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, and kita are indigenous to Malay.
| Person | Malay | English |
|---|---|---|
| First person | saya (standard, polite), aku (informal, familiar) |
I, me |
| kami | we, us: they and me, s/he and me | |
| kita | we, us: you and me, you and us | |
| Second person | anda (polite, formal), engkau, kamu (familiar, informal) |
you, thou, thee |
| anda sekalian (formal), kalian (informal) |
you, y'all | |
| Third person | ia ~ dia, dia orang |
he, she, him, her |
| ia ~ dia, mereka, dia orang |
they, them |
- Possessive pronouns
Aku, kamu, engkau, and ia have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphatic dia: meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia "my table, our table, your table, his/her table".
| Pronoun | Enclitic | Possessed form |
|---|---|---|
| aku | -ku | mejaku (my table) |
| kamu | -mu | mejamu (your table) |
| engkau | -kau | mejakau (your table) |
| ia | -nya | mejanya (his, her, their table) |
Javanese
| Person | Javanese | English |
|---|---|---|
| First person | aku (standard, informal), kula (formal), dalem/kawula (more formal/ humble) |
I, me |
| dhèwè/awaké dhèwè (informal), kita (formal) |
we, us | |
| Second person | kowé (informal), sampéyan (formal), panjenengan (more formal) |
you |
| kowé kabèh (informal), sampéyan sedaya (formal), panjenengan sedanten (more formal) |
you, you all | |
| Third person | dhèwèké/wongé (informal), piyantuné, panjenengané (formal), panjenenganipun (more formal) |
he, she, him, her |
| dhèwèké kabèh (informal, but rarely), wong-wong iku (informal) panjenenganipun sedanten, tiyang-tiyang/piyantun-piyantun puniki (more formal) |
they, them |
Javanese lacks some personal pronouns. For the first person plural, Javanese use awaké dhèwè, literally meaning "the body itself" (cf. Malay : badannya sendiri) or just dhèwè, that originally means "itself" or "alone". For the third person singular, Javanese uses dhèwèké that means "itself" (cf. Malay: dirinya), from dhèwè (self, alone) + -k- (archaic glottal stop)+ -(n)é (3rd person possessive enclitic), or wongé' (cf. Malay: orangnya) that means "the person", from wong (person)+ -(n)é (3rd person possessive enclitic, that is also used for demonstrative). The rest of plural pronouns uses words kabèh/sedaya/sedanten, all of them meaning "all" after the singular form.
- Possessive pronouns
Aku, kowé, and dhèwèké have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns: griyané kula, omahé awaké dhèwè, dalemipun panjenengan "my house (formal), our house (informal), your house (more formal)".
| Pronoun | Enclitic | Possessed form |
|---|---|---|
| aku | -ku/-(n)é kula/-ipun dalem | omahku/griyané kula/dalemipun dalem (my house) |
| kowe | -mu/-(n)é sampeyan/-ipun panjenengan | omahmu/griyané sampeyan/dalemipun panjenengan (your house) |
| dhèwèké | -(n)é/-ipun | omahé/griyané/dalemipun (his, her, their house) |
Tongan
The Tongan cardinal pronouns are the main personal pronouns which in Tongan can either be preposed (before the verb) or postposed (after the verb). The first are the normal pronouns, the latter the stressed pronouns, which are also used as reflexive pronouns.
| Position | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | exclusive (I, we, us) |
preposed | u, ou, ku | ma | mau |
| postposed | au | kimaua | kimautolu | ||
| inclusive (one, we, us) |
preposed | te | ta | tau | |
| postposed | kita | kitaua | kitautolu | ||
| 2nd person | preposed | ke | mo | mou | |
| postposed | koe | kimoua | kimoutolu | ||
| 3rd person | preposed | ne | na | nau | |
| postposed | ia | kinaua | kinautolu | ||
Samoan
Like many Austronesian languages, Samoan has separate words for inclusive and exclusive we, and distinguishes singular, dual, and plural. The root for the inclusive pronoun may occur in the singular, in which case it indicates emotional involvement on the part of the speaker.
| singular | dual | plural | |
|---|---|---|---|
| First person exclusive | a‘u, ‘ou | mā‘ua, mā | mātou |
| First person inclusive | tā | tā‘ua, tā | tātou |
| Second person | ‘oe, ‘e | ‘oulua | ‘outou, tou |
| Third person | ia / na | lā‘ua | lātou |
In formal speech, fuller forms of the roots mā-, tā-, and lā- are ‘imā-, ‘itā-, and ‘ilā-.
Hawaiian
| Singular (1) | Dual (2) | Plural (3+) | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st incl. | 1st excl. | 2nd | 3rd | 1st incl. | 1st excl. | 2nd | 3rd | |||
| Case | Nominative | au | ʻoe | ia | kāua | māua | ʻolua | lāua | kākou | mākou | ʻoukou | lākou | |
| Genitive | a-class | kaʻu | kāu | kāna | kā kāua | kā māua | kā ʻolua | kā lāua | kā kākou | kā mākou | kā ʻoukou | kā lākou | |
| o-class | koʻu | kou | kōna | kō kāua | kō māua | kō ʻolua | kō lāua | kō kākou | kō mākou | kō ʻoukou | kō lākou | ||
| affectionate | kuʻu | kō | Only used in 1st and 2nd person singular. | ||||||||||
| Accusative, Dative |
iaʻu | iā ʻoe | iā ia | iā kāua | iā māua | iā ʻolua | iā lāua | iā kākou | iā mākou | iā ʻoukou | iā lākou | ||
The a-class possessive pronouns refer to alienable possession, as with boats, children, clothing, and spouses. The o-class possessive pronouns refer to inalienable (incapable of being begun or ended) possession, as with parents and body parts.[29]
See also
- Category:Pronouns by language
- Fossilized affixes in Austronesian languages
Notes and references
- Blust, Robert A. 2009. The Austronesian Languages. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0-85883-602-5, ISBN 978-0-85883-602-0.
- Ross, Malcolm (2006). Reconstructing the case-marking and personal pronoun systems of Proto Austronesian. In Henry Y. Chang and Lillian M. Huang and Dah-an Ho, eds, Streams Converging into an Ocean: Festschrift in Honor of Professor Paul Jen-kuei Li on His 70th Birthday, 521-564. Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.
- Zeitoun, Elizabeth (1997). "The Pronominal System of Mantauran (Rukai)". Oceanic Linguistics. 36 (2): 312–346. doi:10.2307/3622988. JSTOR 3622988.
- Zeitoun, Elizabeth. 2005. "Tsou." In Adelaar, K. Alexander and Nikolaus Himmelmann, eds. 2005. The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar. Psychology Press.
- Li, Paul Jen-kuei (2000). "Some Aspects of Pazeh Syntax". Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, No. 29: Grammatical Analysis: Morphology, Syntax, and Semantics. pp. 89–108. JSTOR 20000143.
- Hsieh, Fuhui; Huang, Xuanfan (2006). "The Pragmatics of Case Marking in Saisiyat". Oceanic Linguistics. 45 (1): 91–109. doi:10.1353/ol.2006.0012.
- Blust, Robert (2003). Thao dictionary. Taipei: Institute of Linguistics (Preparatory Office), Academia Sinica. ISBN 9789570147858.
- PAN *ni-ku
- PAN *ni-Su
- PAN *ni-a
- Huang, Lillian M. (1995). "The Syntactic Structure of Wulai and Mayrinax Atayal: a comparison". Bull. National Taiwan Normal University. 40: 261–294. hdl:20.500.12235/17850.
- Tsukida, Naomi. 2005. "Seediq." In Adelaar, K. Alexander and Nikolaus Himmelmann, eds. 2005. The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar. Psychology Press.
- Adelaar, K. Alexander (1997). "Grammar Notes on Siraya, an Extinct Formosan Language". Oceanic Linguistics. 36 (2): 362–397. doi:10.2307/3622990. JSTOR 3622990.
- Adelaar, K. Alexander (2014). Siraya: Retrieving the Phonology, Grammar and Lexicon of a Dormant Formosan Language. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 9783110252958.
- Tsuchida, Shigeru; Yamada, Yukihiro; Moriguchi, Tsunekazu. Linguistics Materials of the Formosan Sinicized Populations I: Siraya and Basai. 東京: The University of Tokyo, Department of Linguistics. 1991-03.
- 李壬癸. 新港文書研究. 中央研究院語言學研究所. 2010: 1–12. ISBN 978-986-02-3342-1.
- Paul Jen-kuei Li (李壬癸) and Shigeru Tsuchida (土田滋) (2006) Kavalan Dictionary Archived November 21, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Language and Linguistics Monograph Series A-19. ISBN 978-986-00-6993-8.
- Li, Paul Jen-kuei (1999). Subgrouping, circularity and extinction: Some issues in Austronesian comparative linguistics. In Zeitoun, E., & Li, P. J-K., Selected Papers From the 8th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Taipei, Taiwan: Academica Sinica.
- De Busser, Rik. 2009. Towards a Grammar of Takivatan: Selected Topics. PhD dissertation at the Research Centre for Linguistic Typology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia.
- Possessor of subject
- The series of absolutive enclitics is sometimes referred to as the -ak series, a name derived from the form of the first person singular.
- The series of ergative enclitics series is sometimes referred to as the -ko series, a name derived from the form of the first person singular.
- These forms are a combination of the obsolete variant of the personal article si and the absolutive enclitic form.
- When the enclitic particle -(e)n is attached, the form becomes -akon indicating that it once was -ako in the history of the language. (cf. Tagalog)
- The final o is lost when the preceding word ends in a simple vowel and when there are no following enclitics. Compare the following:
- Asom Your dog
- Asomonto It will be your dog.
- When attaching to either of the suffixes, -en or -an, the -n of the suffix is lost.
- The 3rd person singular has no ending or form; it is inferred by context.
- Kata, nitá and kanita is not widely used. Kitá was the alternative pronoun for first person dual.
- Schütz, Albert J. 1995. All About Hawaiian, U. of Hawaii Press.
Further reading
- Li, Paul Jen-kuei. 1997. "A Syntactic Typology of Formosan Languages – Case Markers on Nouns and Pronouns." In Li, Paul Jen-kuei. 2004. Selected Papers on Formosan Languages. Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.